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“Predication analysis” is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. “Predication” is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands, etc. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate (relation element). The “predicate” is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. We may now distinguish a “two-place predicate” (which governs two arguments, e.g., subject and object), a “one-place predicate” (which governs one argument, i.e., subject) and a “no-place predicate” that has simply no argument (no real subject or object). 述谓结构分析：所谓述谓是指句子的抽象的语义内容，绝大多数的句子内容都是由一个人或物以及对这个人或物的表述构成的。从语义结构角度看，这两部分分别称为论元（argument）和谓语（predicate）。所谓述谓结构分析是指通过对这两部分的分析以达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种。“述谓”和“谓语化”是所有的健全语句（如命题、即肯定句、否定句、疑问句和祈使句等）的共同特征。因此，语义学家就用“述谓”这一范畴并把它分解成变元和谓语，前者是“逻辑参加者”，后者是“关系因素”，负责把变元联系起来。 Linguistics：
1. What is linguistics?
Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. Linguists observe language facts and investigate how language is constructed. Linguistics studies the general validity and principles whereupon all human languages. 2. Descriptive: describe and analyze linguistic facts or language people actually use (modern linguistic) Prescriptive: lay down rules for “correct and standard” linguistic behavior in using language (traditional grammar) 3. Speech and writing: two major media. Speech is the primary medium of language. Writing is later developed. Why does modern linguistics regard the spoken form of language as primary, not the written? First, the spoken form (speech) is prior to the written form and most writing systems are derived from the spoken form of language. Second, the spoken form plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed and it serves a wider range of purposes Finally, the spoken form is the medium through which we acquire our mother tongue. 4. Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual. 5. Traditional grammar: prescriptive, written, Latin-based framework. Modern linguistics: descriptive, spoken, not necessarily Latin-based framework. Linguistics is descriptive while the traditional grammar is prescriptive; modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, traditional grammar on the other hand tended to over-emphasize the importance of written word, because of its permanence; modern linguistics does not force language into a Latin-based framework. How is modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language. It sets grammatical rules and imposes the rules on language users. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; it collects authentic and mainly spoken language data and then it studies and describes the data in an objective and scientific way. 6. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 7. Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages. Articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics 7+phonology： 8. Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 9. Open class words: content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words Closed class words: grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns 10. Morpheme -- the minimal unit of meaning Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes 11. Auxiliary - head movement Inversion: Move Infl to the left of the subject NP. Inversion (revised): Move Infl to C 12. Deep structure: formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties; it contains all the units and relationships that are necessary for interpreting the meaning of the sentence. Surface structure: corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations; it is that of the sentence as it is pronounced or written. 13. Naming theory (Plato): Words are names or labels for things. 14. The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle 15. Contextualism前后关系: meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. 16. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. Reference, what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. (P) Preposition: about, over, on (PP) Prepositon Phrase: mainly about (Det): the, a, this, those (Deg): quite, very, more (Qual): often, always, almost (Aux): must, should, can (Con): and, but, so 17. Homonymy同义: the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 23. Over-extension 扩展过渡refers to the fact that Children over-extend early words, such as "Daddy", "Mummy", as a result they are likely to call all men daddy and all women mummy. 相关： http://wenku.baidu.com/view/a53c6031b90d6c85ec3ac628.html Speech act （ppt教程）
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