杜立德空袭（The Doolittle Raid）
杜立德空袭 ——史上最大胆与最远距离的进攻之一，使东京措手不及的一击  在日军偷袭珍珠港以后的最初几个月里，美国只能眼睁睁地坐视日本占领东南亚而无能为力。尽管美国已经开始组建一支无可阻挡的强大武装力量，但在它投入使用之前，美国迫切需要采取措施以鼓舞士气，并在敌人和盟国面前证明自己正在反击。 实现这一目标的途径是空袭。但几个从空中打击日本的作战计划都被驳回了：美国失去了它在菲律宾的空军基地，此外把仅有的航空母舰派到日本的攻击范围内也太过于冒险。然而，仍然有一个年轻的海军军官提议使用能够从航空母舰上起飞的中型轰炸机来袭击日本。这是个大胆的、也许还是不可能的想法，所以海军上将金（Admiral King）让他的航空作战参谋来研究其可行性。经过5天的认真推演，上将收到了一份用手写以保密的长达30页的报告。该报告在从技术上考虑了包括距离、风向、载重、装备、燃料和航线等在内的各方面因素以后，得出的结论是此计划可行，但轰炸机将不可能再返回航空母舰了。作为代替，它们将在亚洲某处着陆。 鉴于中型轰炸机隶属于陆军航空队，所以这一作战方案也被递交到该部门。亨利．阿诺德将军（General Henry Arnold）任命詹姆斯．H．杜立德中校（Lt. Colonel James H.Doolittle）担任任务指挥官。杜立德对于这样一个不同寻常且难度不小的任务而言是个合适的人选。时年45岁的他不仅是一个卓越的、经验极为丰富的飞行员，也是麻省理工学院（M.I.T)的博士学位获得者。 杜立德的第一项工作是为任务选择合适的机型。这种轰炸机应该能够从航空母舰上进行极短距离上的起飞，携带2000磅炸弹，并且能飞行2400海里这样的超长距离。他选择了米切尔B-25B（B-25B Mitchell）双发中型轰炸机。总计将有16架这种飞机参加任务。 然而这些轰炸机仍然需要为这个几乎无法完成的任务进行改装。从飞机上卸下了一切非必需品，用来为额外的燃料提供储存空间并减轻机身重量。在炸弹分隔舱处安装了一个200加仑的橡胶油箱，另一个60加仑的橡胶油箱则被安装到了机组人员通道中，还有一个60加仑的油箱取代了机腹炮塔中的机枪。最后，另外安装的10个5加仑油箱中的燃料将在飞行途中通过人力补充到机尾油箱里。改装后的机载燃料总量几乎是一架Ｂ25标准油量的两倍。230磅重的无线电被移除了，高度机密的诺顿投弹描准具也得到了同样的命运。飞机发动机被进行了优化以最大效率地利用燃料。 在进行技术准备的同时，杜立德也对机组进行了挑选。驾驶所有16架轰炸机的都是志愿者。这些机组成员们飞往佛罗里达州的埃格林（Eglin，美国空军基地）进行短距离起降、低空轰炸和高效利用燃油飞行的集中强化训练。经过训练后，一些飞行员能够在仅仅滑行120米后即可升空。炮手们也被训练使用他们的枪炮参加着陆后的地面战斗。每个人都知道他们是在为了一次风险极大的特别任务进行训练，然而尽管杜立德在训练过程中多次宣布他们可以退出任务，却没有一个人放弃。 驶向东京的大黄蜂号 1942年3月25日，轰炸机群飞往加利福尼亚州并被装运上了"大黄蜂"号（Hornet）航空母舰。一周后，"大黄蜂"号的编队（1艘航母， 2艘巡洋舰，3艘驱逐舰， 1艘油轮）驶向太平洋。任务保密程度极高，以至于"大黄蜂"号上只有两个人——杜立德和舰长——知道他们正前往何处。几个小时后，舰长米切尔(mitchner)对全体人员宣布：＂ 注意！目标东京！＂ 杜立德在炸弹上绑日本战前授予他的勋章,这些勋章连同炸弹一起投向东京 轰炸机机组们现在收到了他们第一份有关任务细节的简报。杜立德将单独第一个起飞，并且在黄昏时分轰炸东京。他投下的炸弹所引发的火光将为后续机组导航。剩余的15架轰炸机将分为5个三机编队，对东京的北、中、南部以及附近的名古屋（Nagoya）、大阪（Osaka）和神户（Kobe）等地区的工业和能源设施目标进行轰炸。他们计划在距离日本400千米的地方起飞，在投弹完毕后利用夜暗脱离战场前往ZG一个未被日军占领的地区，并且在当地特地准备的一个简易机场降落。  4月13日，在离开加州11天后，"大黄蜂"号编队与＂企业＂号（Enterprise）编队会合，并组成16特混舰队，在哈尔西海军上将（Admiral Halsey）的指挥下继续前进．企业号上的舰载机准备提供空中掩护，2艘潜艇则在舰队前方领航并搜索日军舰艇．4天之后，在北太平洋，油轮和驱逐舰离开特混舰队，航空母舰和4艘担任护航的巡洋舰则加速逼近日本。原计划飞机将于4月19日下午起飞，但在1942年4月18日清晨，特混舰队被一艘日本巡逻艇（译注：该巡逻艇为被日本海军征用的渔船“日东丸23号”）发现了。尽管巡逻艇很快就被担任护航的美军巡洋舰击沉，但是假设东京已经接到关于美军舰队出现的警报无疑是正确的作法。（日本战时文件显示日军巡逻艇报告了与美军航母编队的遭遇，但这个报告却因为受到怀疑而被忽视了．．．） 舰队被敌军提前发现是一个严重的难题。一方面，航空母舰距离日本仍然有600海里，并且飞机的燃料仍然成问题；另一方面，哈尔西上将也明白编队有可能遭到日军航母舰载机的攻击。上午8时，他下令杜立德的空袭编队立即起飞。 起飞！目标：东京！ 各个机组立刻冲向他们的轰炸机。"大黄蜂"转向到强风方向，飞机引擎也启动了。杜立德松开制动，他的飞机在经过短暂滑行后即已升空。所有16架轰炸机都成功起飞，航母编队随即迅速转向，返回珍珠港。 在大洋上空的飞行是平静的。当在东京附近超低空飞行时，杜立德的机群与几个日军飞机训练编队擦肩而过，但并没有遇到战斗机拦截，也没有防空火力。美国人对此又惊又喜。正午时分，杜立德爬升到1200英尺高度，在东京上空投下了他的第一枚炸弹。不久，其余所有轰炸机也轰炸了他们各自的目标。 飞抵东京湾 东京震惊了，人们极为恐慌。在日本官方反复承诺该国领空将永远＂干净＂的情况下，杜立德的轰炸给予了日本军民一次沉重打击。日军陆航与海军各自的高层互相指责，而负责东京防空的指挥官则自杀了。  杜立德的袭击已经获得了成功，但是16架轰炸机的机组成员们仍然任重而道远。他们正在飞向ZG。天色逐渐变暗并转为多云天气。杜立德爬升到云层上方以寻求掩护，并继续在已经完全变暗的夜空中飞行。由于他试图寻找原计划中的ZG导航标记的努力失败了，因此在经过13个小时的飞行后，吉米．杜立德和他的机组放弃了他们的飞机，在夜色中跳伞着陆。 次日早晨，杜立德找到了一个ZG农民，并被带到了一个ZG军官面前。军官起初并不相信杜立德过于神奇的故事，但最终仍然允许他打电话给ZG最高指挥部。指挥部则将杜立德成功的消息传达给了华盛顿． 这一消息使整个美国为之振奋，士气得到了极大提高。为了进一步迷惑日本人，罗斯福总统宣称，这些进攻日本的轰炸机是从喜马拉雅山区一个神话传说中的地方——香格里拉（Shangri-La）起飞的。 杜立德及其机组获救后的合影 其他飞机机组成员的命运与杜立德大致相同。由于被派去运送接待小组和返航信号标的飞机在前一天失事，所以除了一个机组以外，其余所有人都被迫于当夜在ZG各个不同地区跳伞或迫降。大多数人都平安回家了，但有8人被日军俘虏（3人被日军绞死，1人死于战俘营，其余4位战俘则幸存到了战后）。剩下的那个机组因为在飞行途中消耗了过多的燃料而无法到达ZG，于是他们转向北方飞行并在俄国的一个简易机场降落。 杜立德空袭的结果轰炸东京是一次巨大的成功．它在物质上对日本造成的损害很小，但对美国和日本的士气都产生了重要而意义深远的影响。此外，日军因为这次袭击而将4个战斗机中队从前线抽调回了日本本土。日本陆军则对美军轰炸机着陆地区的平民大肆屠杀以作为报复。 最重要的结果则是空袭结束了日军高层在战略上的分歧。山本五十六海军大将（Admiral Yamamoto）认为，日本如果不对美国太平洋舰队取得决定性胜利就无法达到目的；永野修身海军大将（Admiral Nagano）提议进攻澳大利亚和印度；陆军的将军们则想要继续在ZG战场集中兵力。杜立德的空袭证明山本是对的，由此导致日军进攻中途岛以吸引美军航空母舰并试图在一场决定性的战役中将它们击沉。 中途岛之战确实是决定性的，然而得益于提供有效预警的美国海军密码破译人员所取得的成就，最终反而是日本海军在战斗中失去了它的航空母舰。这是日本海军精华的终结。 吉米．杜立德因为制订和领导了对东京的空袭而荣获国会荣誉勋章。他被晋升为准将，在后来的战争中，将有大批轰炸机在他的指挥下于德国和日本上空投下无数炸弹，但他最记忆犹新的却是自己于1942年4月在东京上空投下的第一批4枚炸弹，那是美国的第一次胜利。
译者后记：
“我们不想燃烧世界，只想燃烧东京”。（美军炸弹上的口号）
轰炸东京实际造成的损失十分微小，据说仅仅是破坏九十座建筑物和造成几十名平民的死亡而已。然而其在士气和宣传上的作用却确实如原文所言，是“重要和意义深远的”，堪称珍珠港以后太平洋战场最绚丽的一抹亮色。而ZG同样在这一行动中扮演了重要角色，这也是本人翻译此文的原因之一。
当然，原作者也在某种程度上夸大了轰炸东京的作用。例如，发动中途岛作战的原因有很多，杜立德的空袭只是其中之一。这是大家需要甄别的。
最后，这是本人第一次尝试翻译军文，若有不足之处还请多多包涵。此外，为了充实文章内容，译者附上了几张图片（原文无图），希望大家能够喜欢。
又及：大力感谢一纵提供原文地址。 原文如下：
The Doolittle Raid
One of the most daring and long-ranged attacks ever, that struck Tokyo in total surprise
In the first months after the Japanese attack of Pearl Harbor, the US watched Japan taking over South East Asia and could not do anything about it. The US began to build an unstoppable military force, but until it became operational, something was desperately needed to boost morale, to demonstrate to enemies and allies alike that the US is striking back.
The way to do it was by air. Several proposals to attack Japan itself by air were rejected. The US lost its air bases in the Philippines, and sending the few remaining aircraft carriers to within strike range from Japan was much too risky. However, a young Navy officer suggested to attack Japan with medium bombers which would take-off from an aircraft carrier. It was a daring idea, perhaps impossible, so Admiral King asked his air operations advisor to study the possibilities. After five days of careful calculations, the Admiral received a 30-page report, hand-written for secrecy. After considering all the technical aspects of range, winds, weight, armament, fuel, and route, the conclusion was that the mission is doable, but the bombers will not be able to return to the aircraft carrier. Instead they will have to land somewhere in Asia.
Since medium bombers were in the army Air Force, the project was then passed to it, and General Henry Arnold appointed Lt. Colonel James H.Doolittle as the mission commander. Doolittle was the right person for this extraordinary and technically difficult mission. At age 45, Doolittle was not just an excellent and highly experienced pilot, he also had a doctorate from M.I.T .
Doolittle's first task was to select the right aircraft for the mission. A bomber capable of taking off from the very short runway of an aircraft carrier, carry 2000lb of bombs, and fly a very long range of 2400 nautical miles. He selected the twin-engined B-25B Mitchell. 16 bombers will participate in the mission.
The bombers still had to be modified for the near impossible mission. The bombers were stripped from anything that was not essential, in order to make room for extra fuel and reduce weight. A 200 gallons rubber fuel tank was installed in the bombs compartment, another 160 gallons fuel tank was put in the crew corridor, and a 60 gallons fuel tank replaced the machine guns in the ventral turret. Finally, ten 5 gallon tanks were also taken, to be manually added into the rear fuel tank in flight. The total amount of fuel was almost double than that of a standard B-25. The 230lb radio was removed, and so was the top secret Norden bombsight. The engines were optimized for maximum fuel efficiency.
Beside the technical preparations, Doolittle also selected the crews, all volunteers, for the 16 bombers. The crews flew to Eglin, Florida, for intensive training in short takeoffs and landings, navigation, low altitude bombardment, and fuel efficient flying. Following the training, some pilots were able to take off after just 120 meters. The gunners also trained in using their guns for ground combat after landing. Everyone knew they were training for a high risk special mission, but although Doolittle announced several times during the training that they can leave the mission, no one did.
In March 25, 1942, the bombers flew to California and were loaded on the aircraft carrier USS Hornet. A week later, the Hornet's carrier group (1 carrier, 2 cruisers, 3 destroyers, 1 tanker) sailed into the Pacific Ocean. Secrecy was such that only two men in the Hornet knew where they were heading, Doolittle, and the Hornet's captain. Several hours later Captain Mitchner announced to the entire crew :
"Attention ! The target is Tokyo !"
The bomber crews now received their first briefing about the mission details. Doolittle will takeoff first, alone, and will attack Tokyo at dusk. The fire from his bombs would help the following crews navigate. The remaining 15 bombers, in 5 formations of three, were given industry and energy targets in North, center, and South Tokyo, and also in nearby Nagoya, Osaka, and Kobe. They were supposed to take off 400 miles from Japan, and after dropping their bombs, use the darkness to escape, and head to China, to an area which was not under Japanese occupation, and land there in a specially prepared airstrip.
In April 13, eleven days after leaving California, the Hornet's group met the carrier group of the USS Enterprise, and they continued together as Task Force 16, commanded by Admiral Halsey. The Enterprise air group provided air cover, and two submarines led ahead of the force, looking for Japanese vessels. Four days later, in the North Pacific, the tankers and destroyers left the task force, and the carriers and four escorting cruisers increased their speed and headed to Japan. Takeoff was scheduled for April 19 in the afternoon, but in April 18, 1942, at dawn, the task force was detected by a Japanese patrol boat. It was quickly sunk by one of the cruisers, but it was correctly assumed that their presence was already reported to Tokyo. ( Japanese wartime documents reveal that the Japanese patrol boat did report that it met an American carrier group, but the report was ignored in disbelief... )
The early detection was a major difficulty. On one hand the carriers were still over 600 nautical miles from Japan, and fuel was already a problem. On the other hand Admiral Halsey knew that the group might be attacked by Japanese carrier aircraft. At 8AM he ordered Doolittle's raiders to takeoff immediately.
The crews rushed to their bombers. The Hornet turned into the strong wind. Engines were started. Doolittle released the brakes and after a short run his bomber was airborne. All the 16 bombers successfully took off, and then the carrier task force quickly turned, heading back to Pearl Harbor.
Flight over the ocean was normal. Near Tokyo, flying at very low altitude, the Doolittle raid bombers met several formations of training aircraft, but no fighters, and no anti-aircraft fire. Their surprise was perfect. It was noon, and Doolittle climbed to 1200ft and dropped his first bomb over the center of Tokyo. Soon after all the other bombers bombed their targets.
Tokyo was stunned. People panicked. After repeated promises by the authorities that Japan's sky will be "clean" forever, the Doolittle raid was a shock to Japan's military and population. The heads of the Air Force and Navy accused each other, and the commander of Tokyo's air defense committed a suicide.
The Doolittle raid was already a success, but the 16 bomber crews still had a long way ahead. They flew towards China. It became dark and cloudy. Doolittle climbed over the cloud cover and kept flying in total darkness. His attempt to locate the planned Chinese navigation beacon failed. After 13 hours of flight, Jimmy Doolittle and his crew abandoned their aircraft and parachuted into the night.
In the morning Doolittle found a Chinese peasant who brought him to a Chinese officer who initially refused to believe his fantastic story, but eventually agreed to let him call the Chinese headquarters, and they delivered the message to Washington that the Doolittle raid was a success.
The news electrified America and morale boosted high. To increase Japanese confusion, president Roosevelt declared that the bombers that struck Japan took off from Shangri-La, a mythological place in the Himalayas.
The destiny of the other bomber crews was similar to Doolittle's. The aircraft sent to bring their reception team and the homing beacon crashed a day earlier, so all but one crew parachuted or crash-landed in various places in China that night. Most of them returned home, but eight were captured by Japanese forces ( 3 were executed, 1 died in Japanese prison camp, 4 remained POWs until the end of the war). One crew, that had higher fuel consumption and therefore could not reach China, turned North and landed in a Russian airstrip.
The Doolittle raid's results
The raid on Tokyo was a great success. The material damage was small, but the effect on morale, both in the US and in Japan, was significant and important. Furthermore, because of the attack the Japanese Air Force transferred four fighter squadrons from the war front to air defense of the Japanese home islands. The Japanese army massacred the civilian population in the regions of the bomber landings as a punishment.
The most important result was that the raid ended the strategic disagreement in the Japanese High Command, between Admiral Yamamoto, who claimed that Japan will not be able to achieve its goals without decisively defeating the US Pacific fleet, Admiral Nagano who proposed to attack Australia and India, and the army Generals who wanted to continue to focus in China. The Doolittle raid proved that Yamamoto was right, and that led to the Japanese attack at Midway, which was intended to draw the American aircraft carriers to a decisive battle and sink them.
The battle of Midway was indeed decisive, but thanks to the achievements of the US Navy's codebreakers who provided an effective warning, it was the Japanese Navy who lost its aircraft carriers in it. It was was the end of the Japanese Navy's superiority.
Jimmy Doolittle received the Congressional Medal of Honor for planning and leading the Tokyo Raid. He was promoted to General, and later in the war vast bomber fleets under his command dropped countless bombs on Germany and Japan, but he is best remember for the first four bombs he dropped over Tokyo in April 1942, America's first victory.
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