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Chapter Nine: Buddhist Iconography
<Digital Dictionary of Buddhism> <Buddhanet.net> <Gallery of Japanese Buddhist Paintings> <Buddhist Texts Online> <Buddhist Glossary> <Another Glossary> We have already had some exposure to medieval Buddhist iconography in the course of examining Tendai and Shingon. This chapter takes a systematic look at the major aspects of classical Buddhist iconography in Japan. Five major types of Buddhist imagery--Buddhas (nyorai), Bodhisattvas, wisdom kings, demi-gods, and local manifestations--form overall framework of the chapter. Within each of these categories, we examine significant iconographic features such as physical characteristics, mudra, hand-held objects, and throne/seat. After working through this chapter you should be able to identify the major types of Buddhist images and point out specific examples of each type. Furthermore, you should be able to link specific symbols with the Buddhist ideas or lore that they represent. Buddhist Iconography & Symbolic Art Links and Resources General Buddhism (not specific to Japan): Art & Architecture <> Mudras <> Physical Proportions of a Buddha (complements material in this chapter) <> Asian Arts Online Journal (excellent and extensive exhibitions and galleries, many about Buddhism) <> Japanese Buddhism: The Face of Buddhism and Shinto in Japanese Art <> Identifying Buddhist Images in Japanese Painting and Sculpture Before going through the specific types of Buddhist images, notice that, regardless of medium, Buddhist superior beings appear in a relatively small number of stylized poses. In addition to standing, there are five basic poses, *which are shown here.* There are, of course, numerous minor variations for each pose. Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are usually depicted in a relatively passive even aloof pose, such as the half or full lotus or the "wheel king" pose, which is also called the "posture of royal ease." When seated, if both feet are covered by garments, most likely the Buddha or Bodhisattva is making an appearance as an esoteric (Tendai or Shingon) form. The hidden feet indicate the hidden or secret teachings claimed by practitioners of esoteric Buddhism to be means for attaining enlightenment in a single lifetime. Usually, the feet are visible, and whether the right foot is above the left or vice versa is significant. The right foot out and higher than the left indicates the "demon subduing" posture, and the left foot out and on top indicates the "auspicious omen posture." More specifically, the right foot indicates a Buddha or the Buddha nature in general. When it is on top, the Buddha nature suppresses the "demons" that are our desires (recall Mara's attack). But the left foot on top is also auspicious because it means that the self has climbed up onto a Buddha and is thus on the road to enlightenment. It is possible, but rare, to find depictions of seated Buddhas with both feet visible and above the thighs. This meditative posture does not have any particular symbolism associated with it other than indicating an enlightened being in general. The wisdom kings and demi-gods usually appear in active postures, many of which suggest vigorous motion. Even when seated, there is usually some part of their body, typically arms and/or face that suggests movement. The dancing posture pictured above probably originates with the Hindu deity Shiva, the cosmic dancer who creates and destroys. In a Buddhist context, the dance is usually regarded as an act of trampling, and the deity is often depicted with something underfoot (a demon, for example). Recall that the wisdom kings and demi-gods (this latter type of entity is also known as a deva) are more concrete manifestations of the Buddha nature, and they assist with specific tasks or problems. The wisdom king *Gōzanze,* "Conqueror of the Three Worlds," for example, tramples on a small imp representing human passions with his left foot and another representing the obscuration of knowledge with his right. In this way, he conquers the three worldly poisons of greed, anger, and ignorance. Nyorai (Buddhas, "Thus Come Ones") Simply stated, a Buddha is an enlightened being. We are all potentially Buddhas because we all have the potential for enlightenment. As Buddhism developed and split into various denominations, the category of Buddha came to be subdivided into various types. For example, a person who attains enlightenment through his/her own effort is one kind of Buddha, the cosmically-ordained Buddha who appears at the start of a new 3-stage cycle (e.g., Shakyamuni) is another type, and the abstract Buddha principle or Buddha nature, when spoken of as a distinct entity, is yet another (e.g., Vairocana). And there were other types of Buddhas. I mention this information as general background. In this course we need not worry about remembering the subcategories of Buddhas (although, to some extent, we have encountered this matter in the Threefold-body doctrine of Tendai and in the various manifestations of Vairocana in Shingon). According to most schools of Buddhism, an enlightened being will tend to manifest a set of thirty-two major physical signs regardless of which sub-category of Buddha it might be. There are also eighty or more minor physical characteristics by which one might determine the specific type of Buddha. Here, we concern ourselves only with the thirty-two major characteristics, some of which overlap each other. These marks are symbolic of certain characteristics of enlightenment or of the historical Buddha's situation. As such they are yet another variety of skillful means, as is the broader project of depicting Buddhist entities. For reference, here is a list of all thirty-two marks of a "great man" (i.e., an enlightened being) according to the Lakshana Sutra:
Bellow I describe most of these marks, plus a few other iconographic features, in paragraph form, sometimes combining similar characteristics or ignoring less important ones. The total number of points discussed will be fewer than thirty-two. For our purposes, some of these characteristics are more important than others, namely, those that symbolize specific Buddhist teachings or principles. Also, note that not all of these features are evident in each particular depiction of a Buddha. The same point goes for the other categories. *Yakushi* as typical example of a nyorai The skin and body of a Buddha are golden brown in color, and the body radiates a golden light, the rays of which are visible for three to four meters in all directions. In statuary and paintings, this glow is indicated by a halo-like disk surrounding and to the back of the head. The skin of a Buddha is tender, soft, smooth, and clean, with no odor, warts, pimples, etc. The pores of the skin emit a subtle fragrance, and no dirt or dust adheres to it. Note that the adherence of dirt or dust to something clean is a common Buddhist metaphor for pollution or poison by desires, that is, for karmic accumulation. Body hair (if present) flows, or is drawn, upward and to the right. Its color is deep blue. Atop the head is a fleshy protuberance. There are several theories about it, the most common being that it is a bag or growth necessary to hold the vast additional wisdom of a Buddha--extra brainpower in simple terms. Note, however, that this extra brainpower is not necessarily intellectual power. It is the wisdom of enlightenment, which is much more profound. The hair on the head is long and deep blue. It grows thick and is often arrayed in small, circular curls that usually twist to the right. it is always well groomed, with not a hair out of place (*example*). Enlightened beings never have bad hair days. The forehead is broad, oval, and flat. Between the eyebrows is a single, white hair. It is wound tightly to the right to form a bright circle that emits constant light (like a light emitting diode [LED]). This light is the light of a Buddha's compassion, a quality especially stressed in the various Mahayana forms of Buddhism. The eyebrows are long, thin, and distinct, giving an air of royal distinction. Similarly, the earlobes are overly large and low because they have been stretched by the weight of jewels (*example*). Recall that Shakyamuni was a prince. Some of the features of an enlightened being stress the royal or regal status of Shakyamuni. An abundance of jewels can also suggest that the deity has something of value (Buddhist teachings, the Three Treasures, etc.) with which to alleviate suffering. The eyes are large, and the golden pupils contrast with the white of the rest of the eyeball. The eyes often look like opened lotus leaves, and the eyebrows are long. The nose is extremely high and straight; nostrils are usually suggested but not depicted prominently as round holes. The lips are red, and the open mouth reveals forty teeth--compared with thirty-two teeth for ordinary people. The teeth are all straight, with no gaps in between them. The voice of a Buddha has a special quality: those far away can hear it well, but it sounds refreshing, not like shouting, to those nearby. It is symbolic of the universal message of Mahayana Buddhism, which claims to have something for everyone. The tongue, though not usually shown in detail, is long, soft, and thin--like that of a dragon (the dragon is a symbol of prosperity and good fortune in East Asia). Both cheeks are fleshed out. The cheekbones are not high, and, if anything, tend to be lower than those of a typical person, thus allowing some sag in the cheeks. The overall point is to convey a sense of mildness, serenity, and kindness. Compare this facial appearance with that of many *wisdom kings* and demi-gods. The overall face of a Buddha is not excessively long or short, nor is it large or small. It is *amicable and serene.* A subtle fragrance emanates from the face (as with the rest of the skin & body). The outline of the face should resemble that of a full moon, and it should be both clearly defined and radiant. The face is always youthful, and it is depicted as such even when the Buddha #"died" at age 80.# This ever-youthful appearance, of course, suggests transcending the ordinary process of samsara. The facial serenity indicates the joy of enlightenment. Also, of course, the face emphasizes the Mahayana ideal of compassion. The hands and feet are soft and large--usually larger, in proportion to the body, than those of ordinary people. The palm is fat and soft, and the fingers are long and slender. The nails are distinct, also being long and slender and emitting a radiance. This radiance is rarely depicted, however. *The hands* and feet also have webbing between the fingers and toes. This feature, combined with the large size of the hands, indicates a Buddha's compassionate urge to save everyone. In other words, nobody should slip through the saving hands of Buddha. Notice here also the Mahayana ideal (or sales pitch), namely, that we have something for everyone. In some accounts, the webbing on the hand is reminiscent of, or a vestige of, the time when Shakyamuni nearly fasted himself to death. This symbolism, of course, is not incompatible with the message of compassion for all sentient beings. Historically, the hands and feet of Buddha images tended to get larger as time went on. The naval is a deep indentation, sometimes spiral in shape, winding to the right (like the hair). The genitalia--in the extremely rare instances in which they might be depicted (I've seen only #one case#)--are indistinct in that they are located inside the body. Iconographically, they are indicated by a rightward spiral drawn or carved on the crotch. The flesh of the thighs is slender and round, and the legs are smooth and straight. The joints tend to be hidden and indistinct. Sometimes this type of leg is described as resembling that of the "deer king," a term whose exact meaning is unclear. It may well have some connection to the place where Shakyamuni attained enlightenment: a deer park. The bottom of the feet contain seven marks. Starting from the bottom, first is the Brahma King's Illumination. This "mark" consists of at least two parts: an image of the sun plus the 8-spoked wheel representing core Buddhist teachings and an image of the Three Jewels (usually in the form of three mountain peaks). The message is rather obvious, namely, that the light of Buddhist teaching informs or permeates the Three Jewels. In the version of the Buddha's footprint (bussoku) 仏足 *shown here,* clouds are drawn in front of the mountain. In other versions, they are draw below the sun, thus indicating the ability of Buddhist teachings to illuminate or break through that which obscures enlightenment (especially desires). Moving upward, there is the thousand-spoke wheel. It, too, symbolizes the sun, that is, the illuminating light of Buddhism (recall the central importance of the Solar Buddha in Shingon). Above and to the right is the diamond sword, or, alternatively, the diamond staff. In either case, the meaning is essentially the same as in Shingon, namely, that the diamond represents the eternal truth and power of Buddhist teachings. To its left is a pair of fish, an auspicious symbol and a legacy from Hinduism. Actually, the whole footprint is patterned on the #footprint of Vishnu# in Hinduism. The pair of fish is a classic symbol of Vishnu, and, according to some schools of Indian religion, Shakyamuni was a manifestation of Vishnu. Moving left is a treasure vase indicating the great value of Buddhist teachings. Next to it is the conch shell, which was used as a horn for summoning or alerting people. The horn's amplification of sound indicates that Buddhism is destined to spread far and wide. Finally, on the large toe is either a flower or a burning moon; the rest of the toes feature flowers, which are often written simply as swastikas. The symbolism is vague here. The Swastika is an old symbol in Buddhism, often used to mark the place of a Buddhist temple. The flowers may indicate the blossoming of Buddhism--perhaps in the form of temples. At the base of the neck of an enlightened being are *three rings of fat.* They symbolize the three elements of transmigration: 1) evil passions and the resulting delusions; 2) any volitional act, good or evil; and 3) suffering. The body in general appears strong, but without an obvious source of strength such as bulging muscles. *While strong, it is also gentle and supple.* A tremendous spiritual power or charisma emanates from it. Usually, but not always, a Buddha is depicted alone, without attendants (a major exception is the Buddha Amida who is functionally a Bodhisattva). The idea here seems to be that Buddhas are so spiritually powerful that they need no assistants, attendants, or guardians. When walking or sitting, a Buddha does not actually touch the ground or other relevant surface. Instead, he hovers above it. Of course, this hovering is hard to depict, so one rarely sees it in art. There is some additional symbolism associated with a nyorai. The robes of a Buddha are patterned after the robes worn by low-caste workers in India while cleaning toilets. This symbol contrasts with other markings suggesting a royal background. The royal symbolism emphasizes the high level of attainment of a Buddha; the robes emphasize the qualities of humility, compassion, and a lack of concern for worldly status. Whether the right shoulder is bare or both shoulders are covered does not seem to have any particular significance in Japan. The downward, unfocussed gaze of a nyorai suggests the unlimited vastness of the cosmos and a lack of fixation on worldly things. It invites the observer to meditate. Statues of Buddhas are almost always male, but male features are not emphasized. The original intention seems to have been gender neutrality or at least gender vagueness. In addition to being familiar with the physical characteristics of a Buddha and the symbolism associated with some of them, you should be able to identify the most important nyorai and distinguish them from each other. In doing so, the first place to look is the hand. Although there are a small number of instances in which the hands can be deceptive, in the vast majority of cases, specific Buddhas can be identified by their mudra. For example, we have already seen the two mudra of Vairocana, the solar Buddha (review this material if you have forgotten it). Here we examine several other nyorai. Shakyamuni is relatively difficult to identify. Look Closely at the hands of Shakyamuni in the images that have already appeared above. *Shakyamuni* usually appears with the right hand held open and up, palm out, and usually, but not always, with the middle finger *slightly extended.* This mudra (called semui) means "there is nothing to fear." The left hand usually is held down with the palm up, and usually, but not always, with the middle finger slightly extended in a mudra (called segan) that means "I fulfill my vow." In the case of Shakyamuni, his vow, which he put into practice by preaching, was to save sentient beings from their suffering. These mudra do not specifically mean "Shakyamuni," and other Buddhas or Bodhisattvas may employ them. The reason we can use them to identify Shakyamuni is that they indicate qualities and practices closely associated with Shakyamuni. But these qualities and practices are also associated with other nyorai, especially Yakushi and Amida. Therefore additional data and some degree of mental gymnastics is often needed to clearly distinguish between Shakyamuni, Amida, and Yakushi. Before looking at Yakushi and Amida, however, there are several alternative mudra for Shakyamuni. Sometimes, while seated, the right hand is held palm down with one or more fingers touching the ground. *This mudra,* which literally means "touching the ground" (shokuchi) symbolizes Shakyamuni's triumph over Mara specifically, and the subduing of "demons" generally--all with the earth itself as a witness. Meher McArthur explains this matter as follows:
Of course, the term "demons" here really means desires. So the mudra is sometimes called the "demon-subduing" mudra or something similar. Because this mudra is so closely related to a specific event in Shakyamuni's life, if you see it, the entity depicted is almost certainly Shakyamuni. In a variation of this mudra, sometimes the right hand points with one finger extended. It is also possible that Shakyamuni might be depicted holding a begging bowl in one or both hands. If in one hand, it would be the left, in which case the right hand would be in the semui (banishing fear) mudra. In such a case, Shakyamuni would look very much like Yakushi, but look closely at the bowl. If there is no cover, it is Shakyamuni. If it has a cover, it is the medicine jar of Yakushi. (*Various Mudra of Shakyamuni*) Because Shakyamuni's vow to assist sentient beings took the form of preaching, he is sometimes depicted with his hands in a *preaching mudra.* There are numerous variations in preaching mudra, which are more commonly seen in depictions of Amida, not Shakyamuni. In preaching mudra, the palms are held outward and the thumb touches one of the fingers. For Amida, as we shall see, which finger the thumb touches is of some significance. In the case of Shakyamuni using this mudra, he often uses only one hand. In general, if the Buddhist image uses two hands, each symmetrical to the other, it is almost always Amida. If only one hand, is in the preaching mudra or if the hands are widely separated and on different levels, it is probably Shakyamuni. (Two Chinese versions of Shakyamuni: #Standing# & #Seated#) *Yakushi* is relatively easy to distinguish by the #medicine jar,# which is usually in his left hand (sometimes it was there originally but is now missing). The right hand is almost always in the semui (banishing fear) mudra. Yakushi and/or some of his Bodhisattva manifestations are sometimes called "Medicine King." Like Amida and Shakyamuni, Yakushi is a compassionate Buddha who seeks to save and enlighten sentient beings with the "medicine" of Buddhism. On rare occasions, Yakushi either holds the medicine jar with two hands (and is then very hard to distinguish from Shakyamuni), or, holding the jar in his left hand, he holds a staff or other object in his right hand. Like Amida, Yakushi is often pictured with two attendants (#example#). (A Chinese version of Yakushi, #Yaoshi#) Perhaps the most commonly depicted Buddha in Japan is *Amida,* the central figure of Pure Land Buddhism, which we examine in detail in a later chapter. Amida is like Yakushi and Shakyamuni but, of the three, Amida is most like a Bodhisattva, appearing from the heavens to take certain people off to a paradise in the west at the time of their death. Amida is usually pictured with two attendants, and sometimes with a vast number of Bodhisattvas and lesser deities in his entourage. Often, he is depicted with an especially large and bright halo, for Amida means "Buddha of boundless light." In addition to these features, the easiest way to identify Amida is by his mudra. There are *nine of them,* but, thankfully, all you really need to remember are three. Amida is an excellent example of Mahayana Buddhism, not only simply because of his compassion. What is distinctive about Amida is the perspicacity he displays in putting compassion into practice. He manifests compassion in a variety of ways, each suited to different situations and different levels of understanding of the beings he seeks to enlighten or save. Amida appears in three basic modes, each indicated by a different mudra. The first mode is that of mental and spiritual serenity, expressed by a mudra of *meditative concentration,* which indicates the perfection of Buddhist teachings. *This mudra* looks similar to that of Vairocana in the #Womb World,# but features one set of fingers curled up--either the first, second, or third set. Why the choice of finger sets? Because each indicates a different level of sophistication with which Amida manifests himself. It is not that Amida himself is more or less sophisticated. Instead, he is able instantly to adjust the depth of his manifestation, teaching, and saving to suit the level of those who call upon him for inspiration, knowledge, or salvation. Specifically, there are three main modes, each of which has three levels of sophistication. These levels of sophistication are indicated by which finger contacts the thumb to form a circle. The index finger indicates the a superior level, the middle finger indicates a middle level, and the ring finger indicates a low level. The three modes and their three levels make a total of nine different forms or manifestations of Amida. The second mode is that of *explaining Buddhist teachings.* As mentioned above, sometimes Shakyamuni is pictured with his hands in this preaching mudra, but in his case, the hands are usually held in different positions. By contrast, Amida's hands are in the same position, symmetrical to the middle of the body. This second mode indicates a lower level of sophistication that the first mode. The third mode is the most basic. It indicates simple faith in the power of Amida to *save sentient beings* (#hands close up#) and bring them to his western paradise (more on this matter in a later chapter). In rare cases it is possible to find the fingers in the same mudra as the second mode, but the hands are held in the position of Shakyamuni's semui-segan mudra. (Be generally aware that the precise significance of these nine forms is debatable. Indeed, although the majority of Buddhist sources recognize the nine forms as I have presented them here, there is a minority view that arranges the mudra differently. Instead of each mode making a horizontal row, each makes a vertical column. Thus each row contains one of each of the three modes, all at the same sophistication level.) Because Amida most commonly operates in this most basic mode, depictions of him (especially paintings) often show him *descending from the sky*--or from *over the top of distant mountains*--to save those who have sincerely called upon him to do so. This saving descent is called raigō 来迎. Raigō scenes typically show Amida accompanied by numerous Bodhisattvas and celestial attendants. (More images of raigō: #image# #image# #image# #image#) (A Chinese version of Amida, #Amitou#) In looking at the various images of Shakyamuni, Yakushi, and Amida, notice that their overall physical appearance is similar or identical. All three have most (theoretically all, but sometimes artists were unable to fit them all in) of the thirty-two distinctive physical signs of an enlightened being. To make a specific identification, it is necessary to examine the hands. By this point, you should be able to identify these three nyorai plus Vairocana in both the Womb World and Diamond World forms. There are other nyorai, such as Maitreya, the Buddha of the next cosmic cycle, and the remaining two of the five wisdom Buddhas of Shingon (Ashuku and Fukūjōju). You will rarely encounter them in Buddhist imagery, so let us limit the list of identifiable Buddhas to what we have done so far (plus Vairocana). One reason that Shakyamuni, Yakushi, and, especially, Amida are so often depicted in art is that, although Buddhas, they function more like Bodhisattvas and are thus easier for ordinary people to imaginable than other, more abstract Buddhas. Bodhisattvas are, for all practical purposes, enlightened beings. The only difference between them and Buddhas is that Bodhisattvas delay entry into nirvana to help sentient beings. Therefore, they are generally depicted with the same bodily features as nyorai. There are, however, several differences, not all of which will be seen in all cases. For one thing, Bodhisattvas often carry various objects in their hands. Also, Bodhisattvas sometimes take on a super-human form, which makes sense insofar as they resemble deities in their existence on the threshold of nirvana. Multiple heads and multiple arms are the most common supernatural feature. Bodhisattvas also usually wear an elaborate crown or other headdress (as does the Buddha Vairocana in many cases, but usually not other Buddhas). Let us take the case of the eleven-faced version of Kannon *shown here* as a typical example of a Bodhisattva. Surrounding the figure are common hand-held objects carried by this and other Bodhisattvas, as well as some wisdom kings. The eleven faces symbolize the various avatars (apparitional forms, kebutsu in Japanese--specific manifestations of the Buddha nature). The serene main face is the stage of enlightenment. The other ten faces represent stages on the way toward enlightenment, each conquering one of the ten desires that block the attainment of wisdom. (Incidentally, there is variation in the arrangement of the faces/heads, that shown here being one of at least three possibilities.) With the water flask, Kannon tries to quench the thirst of starving ghosts. It contains the nectar of his/her compassion. The lock of hair and the hair sash are typical features of Budhisattvas. There seems to be no specific symbolism associated with these features, at least not in Japan. The fly whisk is used to sweep insects harmlessly out of the way to prevent their accidentally being injured or killed. Like the very similar feather duster, it symbolizes the precept to do no harm to others. It also symbolizes leadership or advanced practice of Buddhism. These two meanings are closely related, for a superior Buddhist would make great efforts to prevent harming others, even so lowly a creature as a small insect. The metal-ringed staff is also used to prevent harm to animals, and to humans, by shaking it to make a noise in areas, for example, where snakes are common. From this basic meaning comes a more abstract one: warding off the "demons" of desires. The staff of a Bodhisattva typically contains six rings, symbolizing the six stages to perfection in esoteric Buddhism or a host of other possible Buddhist-related sets of six. The sutra carried by a Bodhisattva is rarely a specific book. Instead, it stands for the whole corpus of the Buddhist canon and therefore the truth of Buddhist teaching in general. The lotus, as mentioned in an earlier chapter, is a sign of purity amidst the "dirt" of worldly life. It is a symbol of the Bodhisattva ideal, and it is a safe bet that any image carrying a single, long-stemmed lotus is that of a Bodhisattva. The diamond pounder is a simple version of the vajra discussed in an earlier chapter. It has a single point on each end. It symbolizes the oneness of the universe, and, more specifically, the center axis of the cosmos. The rosary is used in Buddhism like it is in some forms of Christianity as a counter for prayers or chants, and, in Japan, is especially associated with Shingon. In traditional Buddhist iconography, it is specifically associated with Kannon, with each bead representing a passion that Kannon helps to overcome. Similarly, the beads can represent the many different manifestations of Kannon. With this description of Kannon in mind as a general example, let us now identify several specific Bodhisattva. As long as we are on the subject, let us start with Kannon. As you might have come to suspect by now, Kannon is a manifestation of the compassion of the Buddha Amida. Kannon is a rare example of a bodhisattva in female form, at least in Japan. S/he was originally male in India and gradually came to be depicted as female in China, where she is known as Guanyin. Take a look at this *male version* from an early Buddhist painting in China. Essentially, Kannon is a more specific or concrete form of the compassionate Buddha nature represented by Amida. And, as we have seen, Kannon takes many different forms. One form of the Bodhisattva (*shown here*) has thirty-three different manifestations, and some other forms of Kannon also feature multiple manifestations. Kannon is the most frequently depicted Bodhisattva in Japan, and, in addition to the eleven-headed form discussed above, s/he may also appear in other modes such as the *1000-armed Kannon* (though rarely was the painter or sculptor able actually to depict 1000 different arms). The many arms indicate Kannon's desire to save everybody--the classic Mahayana claim. There is also a six-arm version. (Several Chinese Kannon (Guanyin) images: #Seated # <> #11-headed# <> #6-armed# <> #Fish basket#) Fugen's name means, roughly, "universal wisdom," and, not surprisingly, he is a Bodhisattva embodying the quality of wisdom. Especially popular in Japan, Fugen figures prominently in Tendai and Shingon Buddhism (as well as in Nichiren Buddhism, which we do not study here, where Fugen is the guardian of the Lotus Sutra). He is *usually depicted* standing or sitting on a lotus (one for each foot if standing), and often the lotus itself sits atop an elephant. If you see a Bodhisattva on an elephant, it is usually, but not always, Fugen (the demi-god #Taishaku# also rides an elephant). Because light is the main Buddhist symbol for wisdom, *Fugen* can appear in overall contexts which, at first glance, look much like depictions of #Amida's descent# (recall that Amida is the Buddha of boundless light). The elephant, however, is a sure sign that it is Fugen, not Amida. Less commonly, Fugen is featured with twenty arms. Whether with two arms or twenty, Fugen may be depicted holding a three-pronged vajra in one hand and a vajra bell in the other. Sometimes he holds a copy of a sutra. In other instances, his hands are folded as if in prayer or his right hand makes the segan (granting of wishes; fulfilling the vow) mudra. (A Chinese version of Fugen, #Puxian#) Like Fugen, Monju is also a Bodhisattva of wisdom. Is there a difference between the two? Yes, in theory, each represents a different kind of wisdom, but the distinction is sufficiently technical that we need not be concerned with it here. In practice, few Japanese would have made much of a distinction between Fugen and Monju. The reason I mention Monju here is because at certain times in Japan's history, this Bodhisattva was very popular. Like Fugen, Monju appears in a number of forms, but here we will be concerned only with his most common form: *atop a lion.* In general Buddhist thought, the lion is the king of animals, and Buddhist legend often describes a lion attending to or serving an enlightened being. More specifically, the lion came to be most commonly associated with three enlightened beings: Vairocana and the Bodhisattvas Monju and Hokkai Kokūzō (whom we do not study here). In Japan, it is Monju, not the others, who is most commonly depicted on a lion. The basic symbolism is that these beings are lions among humans and that the wisdom of their teachings is (or should be) heard far and wide, just like the roar of a lion. The impressive statue of Monju *shown here* was made by the monk Monkan in 1324 for the emperor Go-Daigo, one of medieval Japan's most important figures. As we will see in more detail later, Go-Daigo sought to re-define radically the role of emperor in the manner of an absolute monarch--much like the Chinese emperor. Go-Daigo faced much opposition in this endeavor from a military government (usually called a bakufu; sometimes called a shogunate), which had emerged in the early thirteenth century. Although he did succeed in destroying this military government, the planning and execution of Go-Daigo's anti-bakufu campaign required more than ten years and nearly failed several times. Monkan was one of Go-Daigo's supporters, and the statue is engraved "We pray that the Lord of the Golden Wheel is successful," a reference to Go-Daigo's plans. There are several signatories to this supplication, one of whom, ironically, was a high-ranking official in the military government. Little did he know what he was endorsing! Like most of his contemporaries, Go-Daigo was a firm believer in Buddhism. It is hard to say how sophisticated his grasp of Buddhist doctrine was, but he certainly saw Buddhism as a potent form of magic. We explore connections between Go-Daigo and Buddhism in several subsequent sections. (A Chinese version of Monju, #Wenshu#) Jizō's name literally means "earth storehouse," and thus he is sometimes called by names such awkward-sounding names as the Earth Store Bodhisattva in English-language books. Immensely popular in Japan especially, Jizō is a Bodhisattva of compassion who is most commonly associated with saving those reborn in hell. Because of his (although almost always male in Japan, Jizō's original form in India was female) nature, Jizō is regarded as a manifestation of Amida and a partner of Kannon. Sometimes Amida, Kannon, and Jizō are portrayed together in a trinity. In depictions of the Six Courses, look closely and you will see an enlightened being in the realm of hell, and, often, in the other realms as well. This Bodhisattva is Jizō, ever ready to save the reborn from their fate if only they will allow it. In Japan, Jizō's roles expanded. While he remained a savior figure in the context of the Six Courses, various forms of Jizō became guardians. Specific Jizō manifestations guard and assist farmers in different ways, protect houses from fire, ask the heavens to send down rain during droughts, and so forth. Above all, the guardian forms of *Jizō protect children.* Especially in this capacity, Jizō often appears as a small statue by the roadside, or as a *group of small statues.* In short, Jizō in Japan became a beloved deity of ordinary people, especially peasants. As such, he typically took on a relatively humble, down-to-earth appearance, quite unlike other Bodhisattvas. Jizō usually appears with relatively little adornment, sometimes none at all. There is no distinctive mudra. Most commonly, *Jizō is depicted* holding a ringed staff in one hand and a wish-granting jewel (representing the treasure of Buddhist teachings that liberate sentient beings from their desires) in the other. In the picture here, a rosary replaces the wish-granting jewel. In many depictions, Jizō appears without any hand-held objects, often dressed as a monk. (A Chinese version of Jizō, #Dizang#) Two Case Studies: Go-Daigo and Tokugawa Ieyasu Religion and politics were closely intertwined in medieval Japan, as was the case throughout most of the world in those times. Buddhism provided a rich store of symbols and ideas upon which Japanese rulers often drew to bolster their image. As we will see in greater detail later, the rise of warriors to prominence brought the Heian period to an end and ushered in a period of mixed rule in which the civilian government relinquished a substantial degree of its authority to a military government. *Emperor Go-Daigo* was a strong willed sovereign who was active in the early fourteenth century. He held revolutionary ideas by which he tried to remake the imperial institution into a strong head of state. Although in the end Go-Daido was unsuccessful in carrying out his plans fully, he did manage to destroy the military government, or bakufu, in Kamakura. He died in 1339, with the outcome of his revolution still undecided. A well-studied posthumous *portrait of Go-Daigo* is rich in symbolism, much of it uncharacteristic of posthumous imperial portraits in general. In it, the emperor sits on a platform with two vajra in his hands. He wears a jeweled hat or crown, and above him are three titles (which may have been added to the portrait later by an artist other than the original one). From fright to left, Go-Daigo is "Great Bodhisattva Hachiman," "Amaterasu," and "Great Deity of Kasuga." Amaterasu is the solar deity in native Japanese religion, from whom the emperors allegedly descended in prehistoric times. After the arrival of esoteric Buddhism in Japan, Amaterasu came to be regarded as a local form (i.e., a transformation body) of Vairocana. Hachiman is a prominent deity in local Japanese religion, who became, among other things, a local form of the Buddha Amida. The Kasuga Shrine was originally the ancestral shrine of the Fujiwara family, and had become highly popular in the capital region by the early fourteenth century. We examine the Kasuga shrine in more detail later, but the main point here is that Go-Daigo is portrayed as both a living deity in native Japanese traditions and as a Bodhisattva (which, as we will see, was typical). More interesting is the way Go-Daigo himself appears in the portrait. The jeweled crown is actually a simplified depiction of what #the real thing# would have looked like, presumably scaled down by the artist for ease of painting. The crown indicates that its wearer was an emperor. Atop the crown is a solar disk. It is similar to the wheel image of Buddhism, but in this case, the primary meaning is to point out the solar heritage of the emperor. Of course, doing so automatically links the emperor with Vairocana as well as Amaterasu. This solar linkage is further reinforced in a purely Buddhist way by the two vajra and the manner in which Go-Daigo holds them. Recall Kūkai's posthumous appearance #resembling Kongōsatta,# the Bodhisattva who is a manifestation of Vairocana and serves as his messenger. *Go-Daigo's pose* here is no accident. Not only is the artist portraying him as a form of Kongōsatta and thus reinforcing the solar link, but, most likely, Go-Daigo is also tapping into the fame and larger-than-life status of Kūkai, now better known as Kōbō-Daishi. And it also would have called to most viewers' minds several other vajra-wielding bodhisattvas. Indeed, the Go-Daigo of this portrait is nearly identical with a *vajra-wielding form of Fugen.* There are other indications of Go-Daigo's divine status. His outer robe is the so-called "toilet-cleaning robe" of a Buddha. The original symbolism was that an enlightened being was egoless and thus did not mind wearing so lowly a robe as that worn by people engaged in low-status work like toilet cleaning. In Go-Daigo's case, the robe simply reinforces the presentation of him as a Bodhisattva. *Look closely* and you will also see that Go-Daigo is seated upon an eight-petaled lotus flower. This depiction would have brought to mind in most viewers the eight-petaled center of the Womb World mandala. Again the message is that this emperor was and is a divine being, a direct manifestation of Vairocana, the solar Buddha. Notice the stylized lion-like animals built into the base of the platform on which he sits. These animals come from Chinese mythology, but there may also be a connection with Buddhism insofar as Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and sometimes highly advanced monks sometimes sit on a lion throne (recall the discussion of Monju above). The three powerful animals correspond to the three deities whose names appear at the top of the portrait, thus linking native Japanese symbols of power with Chinese counterparts. Also notice the two stylized lions in front of the platform. They are functioning as guardian deities (demi-gods), who typically guard the gates of shrines and temples. All together, we find a powerful symbolic presentation of Go-Daigo as a divine, entirely legitimate head of state. The painting was made at a time of political chaos in which two different imperial courts each claimed authority to rule. As this case illustrates, in the rhetoric of political legitimacy in medieval Japan, Buddhism played the greatest role. Moving a little beyond iconography, Go-Daigo is also an excellent case study in the close links between Buddhism and politics that prevailed in Medieval Japan. Throughout most of his career, Go-Daigo's goal was to destroy the Kamakura bakufu as a prerequisite for reforming the imperial institution. He forged an alliance with the priest Monkan, who created an impressive statue of Monju for the emperor (another #Monju image# created by Monkan). Monkan did much more than that. Between 1326 and 1330, Monkan performed the Shingon fire ceremony (goma) on a regular basis. He did so ostensibly for the health of a member of the imperial family, but the rites were actually conducted for the destruction of the bakufu. In other words, Monkan sought to array the cosmic forces against the bakufu using an esoteric Buddhist technique. Go-Daigo often personally observed these ceremonies. Go-Daigo did some radical things, which no emperor had previously undetaken. In 1329, he personally performed the "method of conquest" based on the esoteric rites associated with the Hindu deity Ganesa, known most commonly as Shōten 聖天 or Kangiten 歓喜天 in Japanese. This secret Shingon deity was a sort of demi-god, a category discussed below. Ganesa was an elephant-headed deity, and in the Shingon version it appears as two embracing deities, one male the other female. Take a look at this *peculiar deity.* Go-Daigo's performance of the method of conquest was no passing oddity in his day. Shōten was an extremely dangerous and unpredictable deity. The complex method of conquest rite had to be performed exactly right or Go-Daigo risked serious harm. Such secret deities were the ultimate weapons in Shingon's arsenal. Here is a description of the deity by Louis Frédéric:
So Go-Daigo was, for all intents and purposes, dabbling in the occult and calling upon the power of the Vairocana in dangerous form. Notice, incidentally, that despite the worldly uses to which this deity was put, it can be interpreted in a lofty manner as the unity of the faithful and the Buddha nature. Go-Daigo's occult-like practices did not stop at Shōten. In 1333, while waging war against the Bakufu, Go-Daigo personally performed rites connected with an obscure deity called Dakini 荼枳尼. "Dakini" means "sky walker," and generally refers to a female deity possessing supernatural wisdom and thus great power. This deity took various forms, and *the one Go-Daigo utilized* was that of a warrior figure (called Shin'ō, who leads emperors to victory) riding atop a fox. In Japan and throughout East Asia generally, the fox was a notorious shape-shifting, trickster animal. This version of Dakini was regarded as an avatar of Monju, a bodhisattva closely connected with Go-Daigo as we have already seen. Ultimately, therefore, Dakini was a manifestation of Vairocana. The main point here is that again we find Go-Daigo personally invoking the power of mysterious and dangerous Shingon deities. He was going for broke and had nothing to loose. No emperor before or after Go-Daigo seems to have dabbled in the so-called "left-handed Tantrism" that formed a small, secret part of Shingon (in Japan, left-handed Tantrism, which relied heavily on sexual rites, was associated with the #Tachikawa School# of Shingon). With this analysis of Go-Daigo in mind, let us turn briefly to a later ruler, #Tokugawa Ieyasu.# Ieyasu was not an emperor. He was a general who founded a military government that lasted from 1603 until 1867. Of relatively humble origins but possessing vast military power in his later years, Ieyasu was much concerned with symbolic legitimization of himself and the line or rulers he founded. Not being an emperor, it would not have been convincing for him to claim to be a direct manifestation of Amaterasu. Furthermore, esoteric Buddhism was less prominent in Ieyasu's day, and his own primary affiliation was Pure Land Buddhism. Still, Ieyasu's posthumous deification was a similar process to that of Go-Daigo. With the assistance of Buddhist advisors, Ieyasu arranged to have himself deified as "The Great Avatar Shining in the East." This title is prominently displayed in the portrait *shown here* (top right line of text, in bold characters). Upon his death, complex funeral rites formalized the deification, and Ieyasu's body was enshrined in a massive, gaudy temple/mausoleum at Nikkō. The *Nikkō temple* remains a major tourist attraction today owing to its sheer grandeur (and there is a moderately well-known proverb that goes: "Don't say kekkō [splendid!] until you see Nikkō"). This temple was loosely affiliated with Tendai Buddhism, and, as you may have already guessed, the great shining "avatar" was one of the many manifestations of Vairocana. The link to Vairocana also linked Ieyasu with Amaterasu, albeit indirectly. Notice also the pair of stylized lions "guarding" Ieyasu-as-deity. In short, Tokugawa Ieyasu, whose capital city lay to the east of the imperial court, attempted to establish himself in death as being on a religious par with the emperors. In the realm of ordinary politics and military affairs, Ieyasu vigorously established and displayed his superiority to both the emperor and any of the many local warlords by doing such things as constructing a large castle near the imperial palace and parading massive armies past it. But sheer force needs some degree of symbolic, religious, and/or ideological legitimization for effective translation into a lasting system of government. In his attempt to construct a convincing symbolic argument in support of his and his descendants' authority to rule, Tokugawa Ieyasu turned to the tried and true tradition of Buddhism. (Many basic textbooks still repeat the tired old notion that Ieyasu turned to Neo-Confucianism as a ruling ideology. There is no indication, however, that Ieyasu had any personal interest in this body of knowledge. Furthermore, there is no indication that any major official in the military government at this time was knowledgeable of or was interested in Neo-Confucianism.) In general, *wisdom kings* symbolize the triumph of Buddhist practice over desires. As we have already seen, wisdom kings tend to be more specific, concrete, and narrowly focused than the Bodhisattvas. Although they have some of the physical characteristics of an enlightened being, they also differ significantly. The most obvious difference is the *fierce appearance* of most wisdom kings compared with the serene countenance of most Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Why the fierce appearance? Because wisdom kings are one aspect of the Bodhisattva's compassion, namely, the fierce determination to prevail over obstacles and a dislike for those obstacles. A minority theory holds that the wrathful appearance of wisdom kings is a manifestation of the wrath of frustrated Buddhist practitioners. Either view, however, is ultimately the same because of the Buddha nature that inheres in all sentient beings. Are wisdom kings enlightened beings? Yes and no. In the sense that they are specific aspects of the Buddha nature, their enlightenment may be seen as incomplete. On the other hand, as manifestations of compassionate Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, wisdom kings, too, must be enlightened. *Wisdom Kings* are typically depicted as active. Even when seated, their arms and overall expression indicate active battle against the forces standing in the way of enlightenment. And many are not seated, but instead appear like dancers, vigorously taking a stand against desires and other spiritual hindrances. In taking their stands, wisdom kings typically employ many hand-held objects. Identifying specific wisdom kings usually depends on a combination of posture, hand-held objects, throne, and, sometimes, mudra. (A typical Chinese depiction of a #wisdom king#) We have already examined Japan's most popular wisdom king, Fudō. Let us turn now to another popular wisdom king, *Aizen* (sometimes pronounced "Aisen") whose name literally means "soaked with love." Though fearsome in appearance, this wisdom king acts only out of love for others. In Japan, Aizen is thought to control the amorous passions, redirecting them to ward the struggle to overcome desires. He is the patron deity of dyers, possibly because the second part of his name means "dye" or "to dye" (hence "soaked"). When colored, he is typically bright red, suggesting the force of the passions, yet, at the same time, the vigor of his compassion. His lion headdress indicates that *Aizen* possesses the strength of the five wisdom Buddhas. His three eyes are able to see the "three realms" of 1) desire, 2) form, and 3) non-form. His mouth is usually half-opened and reveals fangs. His hair is fiery and stands on end. Like Fudō, Aizen is often surrounded by flames, which indicate the burning power of the passions. Aizen is usually seated on a lotus throne and carries a lotus flower in one of his four arms. The most distinctive feature of Aizen is his bow and arrow, which is the best way to identify him (though it is sometimes missing). Interestingly, experts on Buddhist iconography are not agreed about the precise meaning of the bow and arrow. All agree that it is a weapon against evil. Furthermore, according to some, it chases away carelessness and neglect (in observing Buddhist precepts). For others, the arrow is Aizen's love (somewhat like Cupid's arrow), and, in another theory, it is the conquering strength of wisdom. Sometimes, Aizen holds a small mirror, a symbol of the void in Buddhism. He typically appears with six arms, but sometimes with only four. The third (review earlier material on Fudō if necessary) and last specific wisdom king that we consider here is *Gōzanze* 降三世明王, whose name literally means "Conqueror of the three worlds." He is a messenger of Ashuku (one of the five Buddhas of wisdom in Shingon), and the three "worlds" he conquers are usually regarded as either: 1) desire/passion; 2) hatred/anger; 3) ignorance (Cf. inner part of the Six Courses wheel) or, stated slightly differently, 1) greed; 2) ignorance; 3) anger. The term "three worlds" in Buddhism usually means past, present, and future, that is, samsara. Here, Gōzanze conquers the elements that constitute and perpetuate samsara. Gōzanze is rich in symbolism and relatively easy to identify. Perhaps the easiest way to identify him is by his *distinctive mudra* called niwa, which means "two wings." Little is known about the origins of this relatively obscure mudra, but it seems to indicate the high intensity of wisdom king's wrath toward the forces that prevent the attainment of enlightenment. In some theories, this mudra is the equivalent of a vajra and indicates the wisdom king's diamond-like strength. Although sometimes depicted in a seated posture, *Gōzanze* is usually in a *dynamic pose,* trampling with his left foot on Maheshvara-Shiva (Jp. Daijizai-ten 大自在天), who represents human passions. The right foot either tramples on or is supported by Shiva's spouse, Parvati, (Jp. Daijizai-tennyo), who represents the obscuration of the objects of proper knowledge. Gōzanze is usually depicted with eight arms and four heads. The first pair of arms make the mudra, and the others typically hold the following objects: a vajra, a sword, a bow, an arrow, a pointed staff, a snare (sometimes a rosary instead), and sometimes a bell. Taken as a whole, they are the weapons with which he subdues the three worlds. We have already seen all of these objects except the pointed staff, which, apparently, originated from an elephant goad (i.e., a tool used to prod elephants to get them to move). The four faces express the following emotions: front-center face = amorous fury; right face = anger; left face = disgust; back face (not visible) = heroism. (Chinese version of Gōzanze, #Xiansanshi#) There are several other wisdom kings that are moderately common in Japanese Buddhism, especially Gundari and Dai'itoku. In the interest of moving along, however, we omit them here. There are many lesser deities that arrived in Japan along with Tendai and, especially, Shingon. These deities typically act as guardians, and they originated as Hindu deities in India. They are superior beings, but they are not fully enlightened. Because of their superior level of attainment, the demi-gods (known by the general term ten in Japanese) have attained super-human powers and will live a very long time. Eventually, however, they will be subject to death and rebirth, at least in theory. In practice, they have become objects of popular devotion in Japan and are commonly regarded as manifestations of local deities. The demi-gods serve Buddhism by doing things such as guarding the gates of temples, guarding certain directions, crushing or trampling on demons, and bringing about good fortune at the local level. They are almost never depicted with multiple arms or heads. Instead, they are very nearly human in appearance. There are so many demi-gods, that we need not get bogged down in the minutia of which is which. Instead, we take the most common of them, Niō, as a typical example. Niō's name literally means "benevolent king," and he serves as a guardian, whose statue is common at or near the entrances to temples. In this capacity, he commonly appears in two different, complementary forms, called "a" and "un." *The a form* of Niō appears with his mouth open and functions to expel or destroy demons. *The un form* appears with his mouth closed and keeps unworthy people, especially thieves, out of the temple. They sometimes appear clad in armor, but more commonly they are dressed only in a sarong that appears to be blowing in the wind. This wind is caused by the reverberations of the Buddhist teachings and the rush of people flocking to hear them. The dual-formed nature of Niō may reflect the influence of yin-yang ideas that came to Japan from China (pronounced on-myō or in-yō in Japanese). The dual (a-un) forms of Niō function as granters of wishes in popular lore. They may also function as protectors of children, somewhat like Jizō. You might not expect to see Buddhist guardian deities in a Catholic church, but I came across four of them in a church in Venice one day. #Click here# to see them. Finally, you might want to look over these images for review purposes: http://www./japan/toji9.html. Case Study: Depictions of Matthew Perry <to come> |
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