Bruner观点：学习的实质是一个人把同类事物联系起来，并把它们组织成赋予它们意义的结构。学习就是认知结构的组织和重新组织。
知识的学习就是在学生的头脑中形成各学科知识的知识结构。Bruner简言之，按照布鲁纳的观点，知识的学习就是在学生的头
脑中形成一定的知识结构。这种知识结构是由学科知识中的基本概念、基本思想或原理组成的。BrunerJeromeSeymou
rBruner?(bornOctober1,1915)isanAmerican?psychologist?whoh
asmadesignificantcontributionstohuman?cognitivepsychology?a
nd?cognitivelearningtheory?in?educationalpsychology.Cognitiv
epsychologyBrunerisoneofthepioneersofthecognitivepsych
ologymovementintheUnitedStates.Thisbeganthroughhisownr
esearchwhenhebegantostudysensationandperceptionasbeing
active,ratherthanpassiveprocesses.CognitivepsychologyIn
1947,Brunerpublishedhisclassicstudy?ValueandNeedasOrgani
zingFactorsinPerception?inwhichpoorandrichchildrenwerea
skedtoestimatethesizeofcoinsorwoodendisksthesizeofAm
ericanpennies,nickels,dimes,quartersandhalf-dollars.Cogni
tivepsychologyTheresultsshowedthatthevalueandneedthepo
orandrichchildrenassociatedwithcoinscausedthemtosignifi
cantlyoverestimatethesizeofthecoins,especiallywhencompar
edtotheirmoreaccurateestimationsofthesamesizedisks.Cog
nitivepsychologySimilarly,anotherclassicstudyconductedby
BrunerandLeoPostmanshowedslowerreactiontimesandlessaccu
rateanswerswhenadeckof?playingcards?reversedthecoloroft
he?suit?symbolforsomecards(e.g.redspadesandblackhearts).
CognitivepsychologyTheseseriesofexperimentsissuedinwhat
somecalledthe''NewLook''psychology,whichchallengedpsycholo
giststostudynotjustanorganism''sresponsetoastimulus,but
alsoitsinternalinterpretation.Cognitivepsychology?Aftert
heseexperimentsonperception,Brunerturnedhisattentiontoth
eactualcognitionsthathehadindirectlystudiedinhispercept
ionstudies.CognitivepsychologyIn1956,Brunerpublishedabo
ok?AStudyofThinking?whichformallyinitiatedthestudyofcogn
itivepsychology.Soonafterwards,BrunerhelpedfoundtheCenter
ofCognitiveStudiesatHarvard.Afteratime,Brunerbegantor
esearchothertopicsinpsychology,Cognitivepsychologybutin
1990hereturnedtothesubjectandgaveaseriesoflectures.Th
electureswerecompiledintoabook?ActsofMeaning?andinthese
lectures,Brunerrefutedthecomputermodelforstudyingthemin
d,advocatingamoreholisticunderstandingofthemindanditsc
ognitions.DevelopmentalpsychologyBeginningaround1967,Brun
erturnedhisattentiontowardthesubjectofdevelopmentalpsych
ology.Brunerstudiedthewaychildrenlearnedandcoinedtheter
m"scaffolding",todescribethewaychildrenoftenbuildonthe
informationtheyhavealreadymastered.Developmentalpsycholog
yInhisresearchonthedevelopmentof?children?(1966),Brunerp
roposedthreemodesofrepresentation:enactiverepresentation(a
ction-based),iconicrepresentation(image-based),andsymbolicr
epresentation(language-based).DevelopmentalpsychologyRather
thanneatlydelineatedstages,themodesofrepresentationarei
ntegratedandonlylooselysequentialasthey"translate"intoea
chother.Symbolicrepresentationremainstheultimatemode,for
it"isclearlythemostmysteriousofthethree."Developmental
psychologyBruner''stheorysuggestsitisefficaciouswhenfaced
withnewmaterialtofollowaprogressionfromenactivetoiconi
ctosymbolicrepresentation;thisholdstrueevenforadultlear
ners.Atrueinstructionaldesigner,Bruner''sworkalsosuggests
thatalearner(evenofaveryyoungage)iscapableoflearning
anymaterialsolongastheinstructionisorganizedappropriatel
y,insharpcontrasttothebeliefsof?Piaget?andotherstagethe
orists.DevelopmentalpsychologyLikeBloom’sTaxonomy,Bruner
suggestsasystemofcodinginwhichpeopleformahierarchicala
rrangementofrelatedcategories.Eachsuccessivelyhigherlevel
ofcategoriesbecomesmorespecific,echoing?BenjaminBloom''sund
erstandingofknowledgeacquisitionaswellastherelatedideao
f?instructionalscaffolding.DevelopmentalpsychologyInaccord
ancewiththisunderstandingoflearning,Brunerproposedthespi
ralcurriculum,ateachingapproachinwhicheachsubjectorskil
lareaisrevisitedatintervals,atamoresophisticatedlevele
achtime.Bruner''sspiralcurriculumdrawsheavilyfromevolution
toexplainhowtolearnbetterandthusitdrewcriticismfromc
onservatives.Developmentalpsychology?Firstthereisbasickn
owledgeofasubject,thenmoresophisticationisadded,reinforc
ingthesameprinciplesthatwerefirstdiscussed.Thissystemis
usedinChina.IntheUnitedStatesclassesaresplitbygrade—l
ifesciencesin9thgrade,chemistryin10th,physicsin11th.Th
espiralteacheslifesciences,chemistry,physicsallinoneyea
r,thentwosubjects,thenone,thenallthreeagaintounderstan
dhowtheymoldtogether.DevelopmentalpsychologyBruneralso
believeslearningshouldbespurredbyinterestinthematerial
ratherthantestsorpunishment,sincewelearnbestwhenwefind
theknowledgewe''reobtainingappealing.Educationalpsycholog
yWhileBrunerwasatHarvardhepublishedaseriesofworksabou
thisassessmentofcurrenteducationalsystemsandwaysthatedu
cationcouldbeimproved.In1961,hepublishedthebook?Process
ofEducation.BruneralsoservedasamemberoftheEducationalP
anelofthePresident''sScienceAdvisoryCommitteeduringthepre
sidenciesofJohnF.KennedyandLyndonJohnson.Educationalps
ychology?Referencinghisoverallviewthateducationshouldnot
focusmerelyonthememorizationoffacts,Brunerwrotein?Proces
sofEducation?that''knowinghowsomethingisputtogetheriswor
thathousandfactsaboutit.''From1964-1996,Brunersoughttod
evelopacompletecurriculumfortheeducationalsystemthatwoul
dmeettheneedsofstudentsinthreemainareaswhichhecalled?
Man:ACourseofStudy.EducationalpsychologyBrunerwantedto
createaneducationalenvironmentthatwouldfocuson(1)whatw
asuniquelyhumanabouthumanbeings,(2)howhumansgotthatway
and(3)howhumanscouldbecomemoreso.?In1966,Brunerpublish
edanotherbookrelevanttoeducation,?TowardsaTheoryofInstru
ction,?andthenin1973,anotherbook,EducationalpsychologyT
heRelevanceofEducation?waspublished.Finally,in1996,Bruner
wroteanotherbook,?TheCultureofEducation,?reassessingthest
ateofeducationalpracticesthreedecadesafterhehadbegunhis
educationalresearch.Brunerwasalsocreditedwithhelpingfoun
dtheearlychildcareprogramHeadStart.Educationalpsycholog
y?Brunerwasdeeplyimpressedbyhis1995visittothepreschool
sof?ReggioEmilia?andhasestablishedacollaborativerelationsh
ipwiththemtoimproveeducationalsystemsinternationally.Equa
llyimportantwastherelationshipwiththeItalianMinistryofE
ducationwhoofficiallyrecognizedthevalueofthisinnovativee
xperience.LanguagedevelopmentIn1972BrunerwasappointedWa
ttsProfessorofExperimentalPsychologyatthe?UniversityofOxf
ord,whereheremaineduntil1980.InhisOxfordyears,Brunerfo
cusedonearly?languagedevelopment.Rejectingthe?nativist?accou
ntof?languageacquisition?proposedby?NoamChomsky,Bruneroffer
edanalternativeintheformofan?interactionist?or?socialinte
ractionisttheory?oflanguagedevelopment.Languagedevelopment
Inthisapproach,thesocialandinterpersonalnatureoflanguag
ewasemphasized,appealingtotheworkofphilosopherssuchas?L
udwigWittgenstein,?JohnL.Austin?and?JohnSearlefortheoretica
lgrounding.Languagedevelopment?Following?LevVygotsky?theR
ussiantheoreticianofsocio-culturaldevelopment,Brunerpropose
dthatsocialinteractionplaysafundamentalroleinthedevelop
mentofcognitioningeneralandlanguageinparticular.Heempha
sizedthatchildrenlearnlanguageinordertocommunicate,and,
atthesametime,theyalsolearnthelinguisticcode.Language
development?Meaningfullanguageisacquiredinthecontextofm
eaningfulparent-infantinteraction,learning“scaffolded”orsup
portedbythechild’sLanguageAcquisitionSupportSystem?Langu
agedevelopmentInOxford,Brunercollectedalargegroupofgr
aduatestudentsandpost-doctoralfellowswhoparticipatedinthe
efforttounderstandhowyoungchildrenmanagetocracktheling
uisticcode,amongthemAlisonGarton,?AlisonGopnik,MagdaKalma
r?hu:KalmárMagda(pszichológus),?AlanLeslie,?AndrewMeltzoff,?A
natNinio,?RoyPea,SusanSugarmanMichaelScaife,MarianSigman
KathySylvaandmanyothers.LanguagedevelopmentMuchemphasis
wasplacedonemployingthethen-revolutionarymethodofvideota
pedhome-observations,Brunershowingthewaytoanewwaveofre
searcherstogetoutofthelaboratoryandtakeonthecomplexiti
esofnaturallyoccurringeventsinachild’slife.?Languaged
evelopment?Thisworkwaspublishedinalargenumberofjournal
articles,andin1983Brunerpublishedasummaryofthemintheb
ook?Child’stalk:LearningtoUseLanguage.Languagedevelopmen
tThisdecadeofresearchfirmlyestablishedBruneratthehelmo
ftheinteractionistapproachtolanguagedevelopment,exploring
suchthemesastheacquisitionofcommunicativeintentsandthed
evelopmentoftheirlinguisticexpression;theinteractivecontex
toflanguageuseinearlychildhood;andtheroleofparentalin
putandscaffoldingbehaviorintheacquisitionoflinguisticfor
ms.LanguagedevelopmentThisworkrestsontheassumptionsof
a?socialconstructivist?theoryofmeaningaccordingtowhichmean
ingfulparticipationinthesociallifeofagroupaswellasmea
ningfuluseoflanguageinvolveaninterpersonal,intersubjective
,collaborativeprocessofcreatingsharedmeaning.Theelucidati
onofthisprocessbecamethefocusofBruner’snextperiodofwo
rk.NarrativeconstructionofrealityIn1980Brunerreturnedto
theUnitedStates,takingupthepositionofprofessoratthe?Ne
wSchoolforSocialResearch?in?NewYorkCity?in1981.Forthene
xtdecade,heworkedonthedevelopmentofatheoryofthenarrat
iveconstructionofreality,hisworkculminatinginseveralsemi
nalpublications.Hisbook?ActualMinds,PossibleWorlds?hasbeencitedbyover16,100scholarlypublications,makingitoneofthemostinfluentialworksofthe20thcentury.LegalpsychologyIn1991,BrunerarrivedatNYUasavisitingprofessortodoresearchandtofoundtheColloquiumontheTheoryofLegalPractice.Thegoalofthisinstitutionisto"studyhowlawispracticedandhowitspracticecanbeunderstoodbyusingtoolsdevelopedinanthropology,psychology,linguistics,andliterarytheory.“CurrentlyBrunerisSeniorResearchFellowinLawatNYU.IESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIESIES |
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