深度学习笔记——深度学习框架TensorFlow

深度学习（4）二. 教程：

Deep MNIST for Experts：

TensorFlow is a powerful library for doing large-scale numerical computation. One of the tasks at which it excels is implementing and training deep neural networks. In this tutorial we will learn the basic building blocks of a TensorFlow model while constructing a deep convolutional MNIST classifier.

TensorFlow是一个非常强大的用来做大规模数值计算的库。其所擅长的任务之一就是实现以及训练深度神经网络。在本教程中，我们将学到构建一个TensorFlow模型的基本步骤，并将通过这些步骤为MNIST构建一个深度卷积神经网络。

This introduction assumes familiarity with neural networks and the MNIST dataset. If you don’t have a background with them, check out the introduction for beginners. Be sure to install TensorFlow before starting.

这个教程假设你已经熟悉神经网络和MNIST数据集。如果你尚未了解，请查看新手指南.

About this tutorial：

The first part of this tutorial explains what is happening in the mnist_softmax.py code, which is a basic implementation of a Tensorflow model. The second part shows some ways to improve the accuracy.

教程的第一部分是在解释mnist_softmax.py代码，它是对TensorFlow模型的基本实现，第二部分是在分析如何改善它的精度。

You can copy and paste each code snippet from this tutorial into a Python environment, or you can choose to just read through the code.

你可以将代码一行行复制到Python环境下，也可以选择阅读这些代码。

What we will accomplish in this tutorial:

接下来我们需要完成下面目标

a) Create a softmax regression function that is a model for recognizing MNIST digits, based on looking at every pixel in the image

创建一个softmax回归函数，它是基于在图像中的每个像素以识别MNIST数字模型。

b) Use Tensorflow to train the model to recognize digits by having it “look” at thousands of examples (and run our first Tensorflow session to do so)

使用tensorflow训练模型识别数字有了“看”在成千上万的例子（并运行我们的第一tensorflow会话这样做）

c) Check the model’s accuracy with our test data

用我们的测试数据检查模型的准确性。

d) Build, train, and test a multilayer convolutional neural network to improve the results

构建、训练和测试多层卷积神经网络以提高结果

Setup：

Before we create our model, we will first load the MNIST dataset, and start a TensorFlow session.

在创建模型之前，我们首先需要加载MNIST数据，并且启动一个TensorFlow会话

Load MNIST Data：

If you are copying and pasting in the code from this tutorial, start here with these two lines of code which will download and read in the data automatically:

如果你从教程中复制黏贴代码，那么现在下面两句能自动帮你下载代码

from tensorflow.examples.tutorials.mnist import input_data mnist = input_data.read_data_sets('/MNIST_data',one_hot=Ture)

Here mnist is a lightweight class which stores the training, validation, and testing sets as NumPy arrays. It also provides a function for iterating through data minibatches, which we will use below.

这里，mnist是一个轻量级的类。它以Numpy数组的形式存储着训练、校验和测试数据集。同时提供了一个函数，用于在迭代中获得minibatch，后面我们将会用到。

Start TensorFlow InteractiveSession：

TensorFlow relies on a highly efficient C++ backend to do its computation. The connection to this backend is called a session. The common usage for TensorFlow programs is to first create a graph and then launch it in a session.

Tensorflow依赖于一个高效的C++后端来进行计算。与后端的这个连接叫做session。一般而言，使用TensorFlow程序的流程是先创建一个图，然后在session中启动它。

Here we instead use the convenient InteractiveSession class, which makes TensorFlow more flexible about how you structure your code. It allows you to interleave operations which build a computation graph with ones that run the graph. This is particularly convenient when working in interactive contexts like IPython. If you are not using an InteractiveSession, then you should build the entire computation graph before starting a session and launching the graph.

这里，我们使用更加方便的InteractiveSession类。通过它，你可以更加灵活地构建你的代码。它能让你在运行图的时候，插入一些计算图，这些计算图是由某些操作(operations)构成的。这对于工作在交互式环境中的人们来说非常便利，比如使用IPython。如果你没有使用InteractiveSession，那么你需要在启动session之前构建整个计算图，然后启动该计算图。

import tensorflow as tfsess = tf.InteractiveSession

Computation Graph:

To do efficient numerical computing in Python, we typically use libraries like NumPy that do expensive operations such as matrix multiplication outside Python, using highly efficient code implemented in another language. Unfortunately, there can still be a lot of overhead from switching back to Python every operation. This overhead is especially bad if you want to run computations on GPUs or in a distributed manner, where there can be a high cost to transferring data.

为了在Python中进行高效的数值计算，我们通常会使用像NumPy一类的库，将一些诸如矩阵乘法的耗时操作在Python环境的外部来计算，这些计算通常会通过其它语言并用更为高效的代码来实现。但遗憾的是，每一个操作切换回Python环境时仍需要不小的开销。如果你想在GPU或者分布式环境中计算时，这一开销更加恐怖，这一开销主要可能是用来进行数据迁移。

TensorFlow also does its heavy lifting outside Python, but it takes things a step further to avoid this overhead. Instead of running a single expensive operation independently from Python, TensorFlow lets us describe a graph of interacting operations that run entirely outside Python. This approach is similar to that used in Theano or Torch.

TensorFlow也是在Python外部完成其主要工作，但是进行了改进以避免这种开销。其并没有采用在Python外部独立运行某个耗时操作的方式，而是先让我们描述一个交互操作图，然后完全将其运行在Python外部。这与Theano或Torch的做法类似。

The role of the Python code is therefore to build this external computation graph, and to dictate which parts of the computation graph should be run. See the Computation Graph section of Basic Usage for more detail.

因此Python代码的目的是用来构建这个可以在外部运行的计算图，以及安排计算图的哪一部分应该被运行。详情请查看基本用法中的计算图表（https://www./versions/r0.12/get_started/basic_usage.html#the-computation-graph）一节。

Build a Softmax Regression Model：

In this section we will build a softmax regression model with a single linear layer. In the next section, we will extend this to the case of softmax regression with a multilayer convolutional network.

在这一节中我们将建立一个拥有一个线性层的softmax回归模型。在下一节，我们会将其扩展为一个拥有多层卷积网络的softmax回归模型。

Placeholders：

We start building the computation graph by creating nodes for the input images and target output classes.

我们通过为输入图像和目标输出类别创建节点，来开始构建计算图。

x = tf.placeholder(tf.float32,shape=[None,784]) y_ = tf.placeholder(tf.float32,shape=[None,10])

Here x and y_ aren’t specific values. Rather, they are each a placeholder – a value that we’ll input when we ask TensorFlow to run a computation.

这里的x和y并不是特定的值，相反，他们都只是一个占位符，可以在TensorFlow运行某一计算时根据该占位符输入具体的值。

The input images x will consist of a 2d tensor of floating point numbers. Here we assign it a shape of [None, 784], where 784 is the dimensionality of a single flattened 28 by 28 pixel MNIST image, and None indicates that the first dimension, corresponding to the batch size, can be of any size. The target output classes y_ will also consist of a 2d tensor, where each row is a one-hot 10-dimensional vector indicating which digit class (zero through nine) the corresponding MNIST image belongs to.

输入图片x是一个2维的浮点数张量。这里，分配给它的shape为[None, 784]，其中784是一张展平的MNIST图片的维度。None表示其值大小不定，在这里作为第一个维度值，用以指代batch的大小，意即x的数量不定。输出类别值y_也是一个2维张量，其中每一行为一个10维的one-hot向量,用于代表对应某一MNIST图片的类别。

The shape argument to placeholder is optional, but it allows TensorFlow to automatically catch bugs stemming from inconsistent tensor shapes.

虽然placeholder的shape参数是可选的，但有了它，TensorFlow能够自动捕捉因数据维度不一致导致的错误。

Variables:

We now define the weights W and biases b for our model. We could imagine treating these like additional inputs, but TensorFlow has an even better way to handle them: Variable. A Variable is a value that lives in TensorFlow’s computation graph. It can be used and even modified by the computation. In machine learning applications, one generally has the model parameters be Variables.

我们现在为模型定义权重W和偏置b。可以将它们当作额外的输入量，但是TensorFlow有一个更好的处理方式：变量。一个变量代表着TensorFlow计算图中的一个值，能够在计算过程中使用，甚至进行修改。在机器学习的应用过程中，模型参数一般用Variable来表示。

w = tf.Variable(tf.zeros([78410])) b = tf.Variable(tf.zeros([10]))

We pass the initial value for each parameter in the call to tf.Variable. In this case, we initialize both W and b as tensors full of zeros. W is a 784x10 matrix (because we have 784 input features and 10 outputs) and b is a 10-dimensional vector (because we have 10 classes).

我们在调用tf.Variable的时候传入初始值。在这个例子里，我们把W和b都初始化为零向量。W是一个784x10的矩阵（因为我们有784个特征和10个输出值）。b是一个10维的向量（因为我们有10个分类）。

Before Variables can be used within a session, they must be initialized using that session. This step takes the initial values (in this case tensors full of zeros) that have already been specified, and assigns them to each Variable. This can be done for all Variables at once:

变量需要通过seesion初始化后，才能在session中使用。这一初始化步骤为，为初始值指定具体值（本例当中是全为零），并将其分配给每个变量,可以一次性为所有变量完成此操作。

sess.run(tf.global_variables_initializer)

Predicted Class and Loss Function:

We can now implement our regression model. It only takes one line! We multiply the vectorized input images x by the weight matrix W, add the bias b.

现在我们可以实现我们的回归模型了。这只需要一行！我们把向量化后的图片x和权重矩阵W相乘，加上偏置b，然后计算每个分类的softmax概率值。

y = tf.nn.softmax(tf.matmul(x,W)+b)

We can specify a loss function just as easily. Loss indicates how bad the model’s prediction was on a single example; we try to minimize that while training across all the examples. Here, our loss function is the cross-entropy between the target and the softmax activation function applied to the model’s prediction. As in the beginners tutorial, we use the stable formulation:

可以很容易的为训练过程指定最小化误差用的损失函数，我们的损失函数是目标类别和预测类别之间的交叉熵。

cross_entropy = tf.reduce_sum(y_*tf.log(y))

Note that tf.nn.softmax_cross_entropy_with_logits internally applies the softmax on the model’s unnormalized model prediction and sums across all classes, and tf.reduce_mean takes the average over these sums.

注意，tf.reduce_sum把minibatch里的每张图片的交叉熵值都加起来了。我们计算的交叉熵是指整个minibatch的。

Train the Model:

Now that we have defined our model and training loss function, it is straightforward to train using TensorFlow. Because TensorFlow knows the entire computation graph, it can use automatic differentiation to find the gradients of the loss with respect to each of the variables. TensorFlow has a variety of built-in optimization algorithms. For this example, we will use steepest gradient descent, with a step length of 0.5, to descend the cross entropy.

我们已经定义好模型和训练用的损失函数，那么用TensorFlow进行训练就很简单了。因为TensorFlow知道整个计算图，它可以使用自动微分法找到对于各个变量的损失的梯度值。TensorFlow有大量内置的优化算法 这个例子中，我们用最速下降法让交叉熵下降，步长为0.5.

train_step = tf.train.GradientDescentOptimizer(0.5).minimize(cross_entropy)

What TensorFlow actually did in that single line was to add new operations to the computation graph. These operations included ones to compute gradients, compute parameter update steps, and apply update steps to the parameters.

这一行代码实际上是用来往计算图上添加一个新操作，其中包括计算梯度，计算每个参数的步长变化，并且计算出新的参数值。

The returned operation train_step, when run, will apply the gradient descent updates to the parameters. Training the model can therefore be accomplished by repeatedly running train_step.

返回的train_step操作对象，在运行时会使用梯度下降来更新参数。因此，整个模型的训练可以通过反复地运行train_step来完成。

for i in range(1000): batch = mnist.train.next_batch(100) train_step.run(feed_dict={x:batch[0],y_:batch[1]})

We load 100 training examples in each training iteration. We then run the train_step operation, using feed_dict to replace the placeholder tensors x and y_ with the training examples. Note that you can replace any tensor in your computation graph using feed_dict – it’s not restricted to just placeholders.

每一步迭代，我们都会加载100个训练样本，然后执行一次train_step，并通过feed_dict将x 和 y_张量占位符用训练训练数据替代。注意，在计算图中，你可以用feed_dict来替代任何张量，并不仅限于替换占位符。

Evaluate the Model：

How well did our model do?

那么我们的模型性能如何呢？

First we’ll figure out where we predicted the correct label. tf.argmax is an extremely useful function which gives you the index of the highest entry in a tensor along some axis. For example, tf.argmax(y,1) is the label our model thinks is most likely for each input, while tf.argmax(y_,1) is the true label. We can use tf.equal to check if our prediction matches the truth.

首先让我们找出那些预测正确的标签。tf.argmax 是一个非常有用的函数，它能给出某个tensor对象在某一维上的其数据最大值所在的索引值。由于标签向量是由0,1组成，因此最大值1所在的索引位置就是类别标签，比如tf.argmax(y,1)返回的是模型对于任一输入x预测到的标签值，而 tf.argmax(y_,1) 代表正确的标签，我们可以用 tf.equal 来检测我们的预测是否真实标签匹配(索引位置一样表示匹配)。

correct_prediction = tf.equal(tf.argmax(y1),tf.argmax(y_,1))

That gives us a list of booleans. To determine what fraction are correct, we cast to floating point numbers and then take the mean. For example, [True, False, True, True] would become [1,0,1,1] which would become 0.75.

这里返回一个布尔数组。为了计算我们分类的准确率，我们将布尔值转换为浮点数来代表对、错，然后取平均值。例如：[True, False, True, True]变为[1,0,1,1]，计算出平均值为0.75。

accuracy = tf.reduce_mean(tf.cast(correct_prediction,tf.float32))

Finally, we can evaluate our accuracy on the test data. This should be about 92% correct.

最后，我们可以计算出在测试数据上的准确率，大概是91%。

print(accuracy.eval(feed_dict={x:mnist.test.images,y_:mnist.test.labels}))

Build a Multilayer Convolutional Network：

Getting 92% accuracy on MNIST is bad. It’s almost embarrassingly bad. In this section, we’ll fix that, jumping from a very simple model to something moderately sophisticated: a small convolutional neural network. This will get us to around 99.2% accuracy – not state of the art, but respectable.

在MNIST上只有91%正确率，实在太糟糕。在这个小节里，我们用一个稍微复杂的模型：卷积神经网络来改善效果。这会达到大概99.2%的准确率。虽然不是最高，但是还是比较让人满意。

Weight Initialization

To create this model, we’re going to need to create a lot of weights and biases. One should generally initialize weights with a small amount of noise for symmetry breaking, and to prevent 0 gradients. Since we’re using ReLU neurons, it is also good practice to initialize them with a slightly positive initial bias to avoid “dead neurons”. Instead of doing this repeatedly while we build the model, let’s create two handy functions to do it for us.

为了创建这个模型，我们需要创建大量的权重和偏置项。这个模型中的权重在初始化时应该加入少量的噪声来打破对称性以及避免0梯度。由于我们使用的是ReLU神经元，因此比较好的做法是用一个较小的正数来初始化偏置项，以避免神经元节点输出恒为0的问题（dead neurons）。为了不在建立模型的时候反复做初始化操作，我们定义两个函数用于初始化。

defweight_variable(shape): initial = tf.truncated_normal(shape,stddev=0.1) return tf.Variable(initial) defbias_variable(shape): initial = tf.constant(0.1,shape=shape) return tf.Variable(initial)

Convolution and Pooling

TensorFlow also gives us a lot of flexibility in convolution and pooling operations. How do we handle the boundaries? What is our stride size? In this example, we’re always going to choose the vanilla version. Our convolutions uses a stride of one and are zero padded so that the output is the same size as the input. Our pooling is plain old max pooling over 2x2 blocks. To keep our code cleaner, let’s also abstract those operations into functions.

TensorFlow在卷积和池化上有很强的灵活性。我们怎么处理边界？步长应该设多大？在这个实例里，我们会一直使用vanilla版本。我们的卷积使用1步长（stride size），0边距（padding size）的模板，保证输出和输入是同一个大小。我们的池化用简单传统的2x2大小的模板做max pooling。为了代码更简洁，我们把这部分抽象成一个函数。

defconv2d(x,W):return tf.nn.conv2d(x,W,strides=[1111],padding='SAME') defmax_pool_2x2(x):return tf.nn.max_pool(x,ksize=[1221],strides=[1221],padding='SAME')

First Convolutional Layer

We can now implement our first layer. It will consist of convolution, followed by max pooling. The convolution will compute 32 features for each 5x5 patch. Its weight tensor will have a shape of [5, 5, 1, 32]. The first two dimensions are the patch size, the next is the number of input channels, and the last is the number of output channels. We will also have a bias vector with a component for each output channel.

现在我们可以开始实现第一层了。它由一个卷积接一个max pooling完成。卷积在每个5x5的patch中算出32个特征。卷积的权重张量形状是[5, 5, 1, 32]，【插入一个解释：rgb是三通道图片，这里的32可以看成是32通道图片，即有32张不同的图片，比如图片是xy方向，通道就是z方向的。这里的[5,5,1,32]表示的就是5*5的卷积核，使得图片从1通道卷成32通道。从1个方向的图片变成了32个不同方向的图片。28x28的图片，经过[5,5,1,32]且步长为1的话，就会由28x28x1的图片变成24x24x32的图片。1x1的卷积核的用出就是原来是28x28x1024的话用[1,1,1024,32]就会变成28x28x32，这样就能到达降维的效果，降低的是通道数。这个卷积过程也可以这么理解：把不同通道的相同位置加起来后再分解成32个不同方向。】

前两个维度是patch的大小，接着是输入的通道数目，最后是输出的通道数目。 而对于每一个输出通道都有一个对应的偏置量。

注意：

a) 输入图像的shape是这样的：input shape:[batch, in_height, in_width, in_channels]

b) 过滤器的shape是这样的：filter shape:filter_height, filter_width, in_channels, out_channels]

W_conv1 = weight_variable([55132])b_conv1 = bias_variable([32])

To apply the layer, we first reshape x to a 4d tensor, with the second and third dimensions corresponding to image width and height, and the final dimension corresponding to the number of color channels.

为了用这一层，我们把x变成一个4d张量，其第2、第3维对应图片的宽、高，最后一维代表图片的颜色通道数(因为是灰度图所以这里的通道数为1，如果是rgb彩色图，则为3)。

x_image = tf.reshape(x,[-128281]) # tensor 't' is [[[1, 1, 1], # [2, 2, 2]], # [[3, 3, 3], # [4, 4, 4]], # [[5, 5, 5], # [6, 6, 6]]] # tensor 't' has shape [3, 2, 3]， # 即从外层到内层的括号数，以下表示了第一个值为3的原因 # [【[1, 1, 1], # [2, 2, 2]】, # 【[3, 3, 3], # [4, 4, 4]】, # 【[5, 5, 5], # [6, 6, 6]】] # tensor 't' is [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] # tensor 't' has shape [9] # reshape(t, [3, 3]) ==> [[1, 2, 3], # [4, 5, 6], # [7, 8, 9]] # tensor 't' is [[[1, 1], [2, 2]], # [[3, 3], [4, 4]]] # tf.reshape(tensor, shape, name=None) #函数的作用是将tensor变换为参数shape的形式。 #其中shape为一个列表形式，特殊的一点是列表中可以存在-1。-1 #代表的含义是不用我们自己指定这一维的大小，函数会自动计算，但列表中只能存在一个-1,不然就会存在多解方程了。

We then convolve x_image with the weight tensor, add the bias, apply the ReLU function, and finally max pool. The max_pool_2x2 method will reduce the image size to 14x14.

我们把x_image和权值向量进行卷积，加上偏置项，然后应用ReLU激活函数，最后进行max pooling。

h_conv1 = tf.nn.relu(conv2d(x_image,W_conv1)+b_conv1)h_pool1 = max_pool_2x2(h_conv1)

Second Convolutional Layer：

In order to build a deep network, we stack several layers of this type. The second layer will have 64 features for each 5x5 patch.

为了构建一个更深的网络，我们会把几个类似的层堆叠起来。第二层中，每个5x5的patch会得到64个特征。

W_conv2 = weight_variable([553264])b_conv2 = bias_variable([64])h_conv2 = tf.nn.relu(conv2d(h_pool1,W_conv2)+b_conv2)h_pool2 = max_pool_2x2(h_conv2)

Densely Connected Layer(密集连接层)

Now that the image size has been reduced to 7x7, we add a fully-connected layer with 1024 neurons to allow processing on the entire image. We reshape the tensor from the pooling layer into a batch of vectors, multiply by a weight matrix, add a bias, and apply a ReLU.

现在，图片尺寸减小到7x7【插入一点：conv参数中’SAME’和’VALID’的区别：SAME：卷积后，输入信号和输出信号是一样的大小，VALID就和我们平常理解的一样，输入图像是5x5的，卷积核是2x2的，则输出(5-2+1)x(5-2+1)的，这里用的是’VALID’因此只有池化层是缩减倍数的28->24->7】，我们加入一个有1024个神经元的全连接层，用于处理整个图片。我们把池化层输出的张量reshape成一些向量，乘上权重矩阵，加上偏置，然后对其使用ReLU。

W_fc1 = weight_variable([7*7*641024])b_fc1 = bias_variable([1024])h_pool2_flat = tf.reshape(h_pool2,[-17*7*64])h_fc1 = tf.nn.relu(tf.matmul(h_pool2_flat,W_fc1)+b_fc1)

Dropout

To reduce overfitting, we will apply dropout before the readout layer. We create a placeholder for the probability that a neuron’s output is kept during dropout. This allows us to turn dropout on during training, and turn it off during testing. TensorFlow’s tf.nn.dropout op automatically handles scaling neuron outputs in addition to masking them, so dropout just works without any additional scaling.1

为了减少过拟合，我们在输出层之前加入dropout。我们用一个placeholder来代表一个神经元的输出在dropout中保持不变的概率。这样我们可以在训练过程中启用dropout，在测试过程中关闭dropout。 TensorFlow的tf.nn.dropout操作除了可以屏蔽神经元的输出外，还会自动处理神经元输出值的scale。所以用dropout的时候可以不用考虑scale。

Readout Layer

Finally, we add a layer, just like for the one layer softmax regression above.

最后，我们添加一个softmax层，就像前面的单层softmax regression一样。