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第２天译文。 把之前读过的全补齐了。从明天开始，当天读的，就是当天译的，量会减少，压力会小，要持之以恒。 这个坑可能挖得比较大。这几天学习挺紧张，过几天还主持蓝墨的一个培训班，若哪天实在精力不济了，提前打招呼，可能会停译一天，但阅读应该不会断，继续陪大中小学生们秀语音。 今天的译文的末尾，还附点“教练的艺术和科学”的一点点学习感想。
今日译文定位 前文链接 引言 链接 当前位置 第1章 期望 1.1 期望是怎样影响学生参与的（今日成果－全部完成） 1.2 设置清晰期望的策略（今日成果－部分完成） 1.3 小结及行动清单 （待完成） 1.4 进一步的阅读 （待完成） 今日译文 第1章 期望 expectation 在主动学习课堂教学中，如何设置清晰的期望，学生才能知道他们在成功路上该怎么做？ How can I set clear expectations in active learning classrooms, so students will know what they need to do to succeed?
当学生遇到主动学习课堂，他们可能不能确定对他们的期望。他们可能害怕自己会遭遇不公平的评价，或者不能清楚地看到通向成功的路径。这种焦虑和不确定，会让他们从交互式的学习活动中抽身而退。 When students encounter an active learning classroom, they may be unsure of what is expected of them. They may fear they won’t be evaluated fairly, or won’t see a clear path towards success. This anxiety and uncertainty can cause them to withdraw from interactive learning activities.
本章的焦点，就是通过为学生参与课堂活动创建清晰的期望，帮助他们在主动学习的课堂中有效参与。 This chapter focuses on helping students engage productively in active learning classrooms through creating clear expectations for student engagement and learning.
1.1 期望是怎样影响学生参与的？ How do expectations affect student engagement? 关键词：期望，违反预期，结果预期 Keywords: Expectations, expectancy violation, outcome expectancy
当学生在你的课程中不知道如何成功，包括不知道在主动学习的情境中希望他们做点什么，他们就可能会有焦虑或抵触。学生感觉主动学习需要占他们更多的时间，可能就是不清楚这种教学方法会不会带来好处。他们可能会由于环境不熟悉而感到不安，可能还害怕成绩会受到影响。这些焦虑，在学生绩效，以及学生参与活动等方面，都有负面的影响。若有老师解释了主动学习活动的作用，学生视这些活动有较高的价值，会对他们的反应更加积极，对课程的评价也更积极。这样， 要让学生正确地迈出第一步，就需要解释主动学习的价值，这对促进学生参与是有意义的。下面是需要考虑的一些要素： When students don’t know how to be successful in your course, including what will be expected of them in an active learning context, they may be anxious or resistant. Students often feel that active learning requires more of their time and effort (Ellis, 2013) and may not aware of the advantages of this teaching approach (Seidel and Tanner, 2013). They may feel anxious in this unfamiliar environment (Slezak, 2014; Jackson and Trees, 2003) and fear that their grades will suffer (Ellis, 2013). Such anxiety has a negative impact on student performance (Moreno, 2009), as well as student engagement in any given activity (Nguyen et al., in press). In one study, when instructors explained the purpose of active learning activities, students placed higher value on those activities, reacted to them more positively, and evaluated the course more favorably (Nguyen et al., in press). So, to get off on the right foot, explaining the value of active learning can go a long way towards promoting student engagement (Fredericks, Blumenfield and Paris, 2004). Below are several other elements to be taken into consideration.
要尽早明晰对学生的期望。学生会带着以往经历过的课堂中的期望进入教室。搞清楚这门课程会是什么样的，需要有什么样的参与（最好通过主动调查），如何评价，这些有助于建立清晰的参与规范。 Student expectations need to be calibrated early. Students may enter the classroom with a range of expectations based on prior experiences. Making it clear what this course will be like, what participation will be expected (preferably by jumping into active investigations), and how students will be evaluated, will help to set clear norms for engagement (Gaffney, Housley Gaffney and Beichner, 2010; Gaffney and Whitaker, 2015).
学生需要感到他们会得到公平的评价。学生想要知道课程成绩是怎样计算的，他们的成绩是否会影响他们的工作（而不是他们的同学）。所以，清楚地沟通对学生评价的方法，这就很关键了。学生对你的公平和诚实也需要有一些信念：这种类型的公信力，要通过保持问题的开放，经过一段时间才能建立，与学生建立融洽的关系，回应他们的关注，在做出决定前还可以公开透明地做些讨论。 Students need to feel that they will be evaluated fairly. Students want to know how grades will be calculated, and that their grade will reflect their own work (rather that of their classmates; Ellis, 2013). Thus, communicating clearly how students will be evaluated is critical. Students also need to have a certain amount of faith that you are fair and honest; this kind of credibility can be built over time by being open to questions, building rapport with students, responding to their concerns, and transparently discussing your decisions (Witt & Kerssen-Griep, 2011; Gaffney and Whitaker, 2015).
学生需要知道在这个课里怎样才算成功。要是学生知道能得到成功（结果预期），他们就更有可能努力学习。学生必须相信，只要在主动课堂中参与，就会提高他们的课程绩效，这和他们对高分的明确期望是一样的。另外，在主动课堂中，指令的清晰程度是重要的：任务的目的是什么？为什么要学生一起完成？要是没有这些清晰的意识，学生可能会困惑，缺乏方向感。最后，学生可能会高估他们的能力，导致他们降低了从主动学习中获得的收益。经常地，这种高估在那些相对弱的学生身上是最强的：人们缺乏发现自己缺点的能力，这被称为是 Kruger-Dunning效应。一般地，对学生的绩效给予清楚的反馈（用一些 low-stakes的评价，stake奖金，应该就是用那些不必要给过多外部的奖励的评价手段），有助于学生发展清晰的期望，以及避免过份自负。 Students need to know how to succeed in the course. Students are more likely to work hard on something if they feel that it will lead to success (“outcome expectancy”; Moreno, 2009; Boekaerts, 2010). Students must believe that engagement in active learning will directly improve their performance in the course, as well as have accurate expectations about how to earn good grades. Additionally, clarity of instructions is important in active learning classrooms: What is the purpose of the task? Why will students be working together? Without this clarity of intention, students may feel bewildered and a lack of direction (Patton, 2010). Lastly, students can be overconfident in their abilities, leading them to minimize the benefit they can get from active learning. Often, overconfidence is strongest among weaker students (Karatjas, 2013); this lack of ability to see one’s own flaws is called the Kruger-Dunning effect (Kruger and Dunning, 1999). Regular, clear feedback on student performance (using some low-stakes assessments) is thus critical for students to develop clear expectations and avoid overconfidence (Pintrich, 2003).
1.2 设置清晰期望的策略 Strategies for Setting Clear Expectations
第一天很重要的一件事，是校准学生的期望，但也不要就停在那里。学生的期望是可塑的，在学习课程期间还会随着时间反复。下面，我们将描述一些早期，以及在整个学期都能用到的策略。用这些策略，你将能够培育（foster）一个这样的课堂——在那里，学生们很少担心他们的成绩，并且还认可参与主动学习对他们的学术成功是有益的。 It's important to calibrate student expectations, from the first day (Gaffney and Whitaker, 2015), but don’t stop there. Student expectations are malleable, and can shift over the duration of the course (Gaffney, 2010). Below we describe early approaches, as well as strategies that can be used throughout the term. By attending to a few of these strategies, you will be able to foster a classroom where students are less anxious about their grades and recognize the benefit of engaging in active learning for their academic success.
第一天：清楚地表达你的教学法选择 First Day: Be explicit about your pedagogical choices 让学生知道为什么你要用这种方法，帮助他们看到其中的价值。但是，要避免用讲的方式告诉他们主动学习的好处。这种“吃你自己的菜”（ eat your vegetables，类似自说自话？）的方法，和学生的抵触是有关联的，学生会感到他们是被告知该干什么，这不爽，他们感受不到受教育过程中存在自我。下面是明确你的教学法选择的一些方式。 Let your students know why you’re using the approaches that you’re using, and help them see the value in them, but try to avoid lecturing about how active learning is good for them. This “eat your vegetables” approach has sometimes been associated with student resistance (e.g., Smith, 2008), likely because students feel that they are being told what to do that they don’t have ownership of their own educational process (Reeve, 2009). (See Chapter 3: Motivation for more about the importance of student ownership). Below are some ways to be explicit about your pedagogical choices. - 向学生解释你为什么要这样教 你可能会解释使用主动学习的基本原理，以及这种教学法与研究成果的一致性。在这个5分钟的视频中，你可以听到一些经验丰富的教师讲解的方法（译者注：在这个报告中，所说的主动学习，是使用了一种叫Clicker的电子产品，所以，有不少与此相关的资源链接，读者可以从原文中找到。在后面的翻译中，与工具密切相关的内容将忽略。另外，我一直在使用蓝墨云班课，倒是想有时间的话，将这篇文章做些本土化的工作，结合蓝墨云班课，写些有针对的文字）。……不过，我也听到一些老师们说，这种说教方法的结果是事与愿违，最好要将解释方法与主动学习结合起来。 例如，看我们的 Clicker Questions – How Do You Learn? (PPT), 或者在活动后做好反馈，避免让学生感觉到是讲给他们听的。邀请学生讨论课程方法，例如：关于课程的方法，你想到了什么？这与你目前的学习方法的匹配程度有多大？你有什么问题？你/我需要为此做些什么？在学期中，常回到这些问题上来：学生可能没有必要记住这些介绍。注意，你需要在你的脑子里，对主动学习有一个清晰的原理，以便于能够与你的学生清楚地沟通这些原理。 - Explain to students why you have chosen to teach this way. You might explain the rationale for your use of active learning, and how this pedagogy aligns with research. Hear from several seasoned instructors in this 5-minute video on laying out the course approach. Here are Sample Slides Explaining Active Learning (PPT), and a video of an instructor discussing his use of clickers with the class, and a Tutorial and Clicker FAQs handout from CU Boulder. However, I have heard instructors report that such a didactic approach can backfire, and so it may be best to partner such explanatory approaches with active learning (e.g., see our Clicker Questions – How Do You Learn? (PPT), or as a reflection after the activity, to avoid students feeling lectured to. Invite discussion about the course approach. Invite discussion after you have described the course approach. E.g., “What are your thoughts about the approach described? How does this match your own approaches to learning? What questions do you have? What will you/I need to do for this to work?” Return to these ideas later in the course; student may not necessarily remember this introduction (Tosh et. al, 2005). Note too that you will want to have a clear rationale in your mind for using active learning in order to be able to clearly communicate that rationale to your students!
- 突出传统讲授的缺点 一个特别的策略，是用幽默的手段去展示在传统讲授下的学习， 组织关于这种传统教学模式另人不满意的那一方面的反思讨论，确定你和学生为避免这样的结局而该做什么。例如，你可以做一个关于传统讲授的拙劣模仿（parody），播放一段老师用讲的方式教舞蹈课的视频，引出一个关于课程方法的坦诚、合作式讨论，以及讨论如何让学生得到最好的支持。 - Highlight the shortcomings of traditional lecture. One particular strategy is to use humor to show that learning is typically limited with traditional lecture, and hold a reflective discussion about how unsatisfying this traditional course structure can be, and what you and the students can do to avoid such an outcome. For example, you can do a parody of traditional lecture, and show a video of an instructor teaching a dance class via lecture (see the activity Traxoline and Dancealot), leading to a frank and collaborative discussion of the course approach and how it can best support students’ learning.
-征求学生对课程的建议 Solicit student ideas about the course. 询问学生他们在课程中想要什么，本着诚实和尊重学生的态度，对涉及到的问题作出回答。例如， 征求关于课程的各种说法，或者以前存在的关于数学和科学课中的问题。这种策略创造了一种正面的期望，建立了你的可信度。 -Solicit student ideas about the course. Ask students what they expect in the course, and respond honestly and respectfully to any concerns. For example, solicit rumors about the course or pre-existing ideas about the content or fears of math or science (see the activity Rumors). This strategy creates positive expectations and establishes your credibility. However, set realistic expectations about how much say students really have in the course structure (Slezak, 2014), and trust in your curriculum – especially on the first day.
-请学生提供他们的学习策略和目标 询问学生他们怎样能最好地实现个人的课程目标，掌控课堂上在高级学习活动中，能够获得参与效用的讨论。在关于第一天问题的活动中，我们给出了一些案例，利用它们，老师可以询问学生们的学习策略和个人目标，以及如何最好地获得他们。 - Ask students to reflect on their learning strategies and goals. Ask students about how they can best achieve their personal goals for the course, steering the discussion towards the utility of engaging in higher-level learning activities in class. In the First Day Questions activity, we give examples of how instructors ask students about their study strategies and personal goals – and how best to achieve them.
- 使用大纲测试 在大纲中包含关于教学策略的信息。不过，我们并不建议在第一天就读这个大纲，取而代之的是，考虑使用一个交互的大纲测试，在其中让学生阅读和讨论与大纲相关的问题，包括经常被忽视的诸如道德和作弊的话题。并且，还可以听一下2分钟视频中几位经验非富的老师的建议。 - Use a syllabus quiz Include information about teaching strategies in the syllabus. However, we don’t recommend reading the syllabus on the first day; instead, consider using an interactive Syllabus Quiz, where students read and discuss questions related to the syllabus, including often neglected issues such as ethics and cheating. Also, hear from several seasoned instructors in this 2-minute video on dealing productively with administrative issues on the first day.
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