导读:本篇是英语教学法泰斗David Nunan 2004年的著作《任务型语言教学(Task-Based Language Teaching)》第一章“何为任务型语言教学”第二节《定义“任务》。为促进原文阅读,这里仅对努南本人对任务的定义进行了对照翻译,其他部分仅提供英文原文。 本文首发于“武太白金星人”微信公众账号,把本文分享到您朋友圈后关注(文末有关注通道)并回复“306”(大小写没关系,引号不要,请确保没有多余空格)即可获取上文图书的英文原版全本PDF。该书仅供个人学习研究使用,请勿用作商业用途,并请于下载24小时后自觉删除。祝朋友们学习进步! Defining ‘task’ Before doing anything else, I need to define the central concept behind this book. In doing so, I will draw a basic distinction between what I will call real-world or target tasks, and pedagogical tasks: target tasks, as the name implies, refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom; pedagogical tasks are those that occur inthe classroom. Long (1985: 89) frames his approach to task-based language teaching in terms of target tasks, arguing that a target task is: a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, making a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination and helping someone across a road. In other words, by‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between. The first thing to notice about this definition is that it is non-technical and non-linguistic. It describes the sorts of things that the person in the street would say if asked what they were doing. (In the same way as learners, if asked why they are attending a Spanish course, are more likely to say, ‘So I can make hotel reservations and buy food when I’m in Mexico,’ than ‘So I can master the subjunctive.’) Related to this is the notion that, in contrast with most classroom language exercises, tasks have a non-linguistic outcome. Non-linguistic outcomes from Long’s list above might include a painted fence, possession – however temporary – of a book, a driver’s licence, a room in a hotel, etc. Another thing to notice is that some of the examples provided may not involve language use at all (it is possible to paint a fence without talking). Finally, individual tasks may be part of a larger sequence of tasks; for example the task of weighing a patient may be a sub-component of the task ‘giving a medical examination’. When they are transformed from the real world to the classroom, tasks become pedagogical in nature. Here is a definition of a pedagogical task: . . . an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or understanding language (i.e. as a response). For example, drawing a map while listening to a tape, listening to an instruction and performing a command may be referred to as tasks. Tasks may or may not involve the production of language. A task usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teachingmore communicative . . . since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake. (Richards, etal. 1986: 289) In this definition, we can see that the authors take a pedagogical perspective. Tasks are defined in terms of what the learners will do in class rather than in the world outside the classroom.They also emphasize the importance of having a non-linguistic outcome. Breen (1987: 23) offers another definition of a pedagogical task: . . . any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task. ‘Task’ is therefore assumed to refer to a range of work plans which have the overall purposes of facilitating language learning – from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision-making. This definition is very broad, implying as it does that just about anything the learner does in the classroom qualifies as a task. It could, in fact, be used to justify any procedure at all as‘task-based’ and, as such, is not particularly helpful. More circumscribed is the following from Willis (1996) , cited in Willis and Willis (2001): a classroom undertaking ‘. . . where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome’. Here the notion of meaning is subsumed in ‘outcome’. Language in a communicative task is seen as bringing about an outcome through the exchange of meanings. (p. 173). Skehan (1998), drawing on a number of other writers, puts forward five key characteristics of a task:
While these definitions vary somewhat, they all emphasize the fact that pedagogical tasks involve communicative language use in which the user's attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form. This does not mean that form is not important. My own definition refers to the deployment of grammatical knowledge to express meaning, highlighting the fact that meaning and form are highly interrelated, and that grammar exists to enable the language user to express different communicative meanings. However, as Willis and Willis (2001) point out, tasks differ from grammatical exercises in that learners are free to use a range of language structures to achieve task outcomes – the forms are not specified in advance. ------------------------ 长按此处二维码即可识别并轻松关注“武太白金星人”微信订阅号。
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