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你跟你朋友正手舞足蹈讲一个好玩的事情，他突然打断你，纠正你的语法错误，抛开鲁莽的打断不说，你朋友是不是也有些道理呢，语法到底重不重要呢？于是语法和语感到底哪个更重要，就成了一直争论的话题，一起来看看TED的4分钟教育动画，也许你能得到答案。 Does Grammar Matter? You're telling a friend an amazing story, and you just get to the best part when suddenly, he interrupts, ''The alien and I', not 'Me and the alien''. Most of us would probably be annoyed, but aside from the rude interruption, does your friend have a point? Was your sentence actually grammatically incorrect? And if he still understood it, why does it even matter? 你正在和朋友说一个很精彩的故事，当故事正要到最高潮时，他突然打断你说“外星人和我（I）”，不是“我（Me）和外星人”。大部分人可能会感到不开心，但除了没礼貌地插话外，你的朋友说的是否有点道理呢？你说的句子真的有语法错误吗？如果他能听得懂，那语法不对又有什么关系？ From the point of view of linguistics, grammar is a set of patterns for how words are put together to form phrases or clauses, whether spoken or in writing. Different languages have different patterns. In English, the subject normally comes first, followed by the verb, and then the object, while in Japanese and many other languages, the order is subject-object-verb. 从语言学的角度来看，语法是一套让单字构成词组或从句的模式，无论是在口语上还是写作上。不同语言有不同模式。英文中，主语通常摆第一，后面跟着动词，接着是宾语，而在日文和其他许多语言中，顺序则是主语、宾语，然后是动词。 Some scholars have tried to identify patterns common to all languages, but apart from some basic features, like having nouns or verbs, few of these so-called linguistic universals have been found. 有些学者尝试找出所有语言共通的模式，但除了一些基本特性，比如，都有名词或动词以外，很少有这些所谓的语言共通性存在。 And while any language needs consistent patterns to function, the study of these patterns opens up an ongoing debate between two positions known as 'prescriptivism' and 'descriptivism'. 虽然任何语言都需要有固定模式才能好好运作，对这些模式的研究引发了一场关于“规范论”和“描述论”两种观点的持续争论。 Grossly simplified, prescriptivists think a given language should follow consistent rules, while descriptivists see variation and adaptation as a natural and necessary part of language. 简单来说，规范论者认为一个语言应该遵守一致的规则，而描述论者则将多样性和适应性视为语言中正常且必要的一部分。 For much of history, the vast majority of language was spoken. But as people became more interconnected and writing gained importance, written language was standardized to allow broader communication and ensure that people in different parts of a realm could understand each other. 历史上，语言的主体大多是口语。但随着人们互动越来越密切以及文字重要性的提升，书面语言标准建立，好让交流的范围可以扩大，并确保不同地区的人们可以互相理解。 In many languages, this standard form came to be considered the only proper one despite being derived from just one of many spoken varieties, usually that of the people in power. Language purists worked to establish and propagate this standard by detailing a set of rules that reflected the established grammar of their times. 在许多语言中，这种标准形式被当成唯一正确的一种，尽管它只是从许多口语种类中选出的一种，并且通常是掌权者的语言。讲究语法规范的人致力于建立并宣传这种标准，凭借详细列出的一套规则，反映当时已确立的语法。 And rules for written grammar were applied to spoken language as well. Speech patterns that deviated from the written rules were considered corruptions or signs of low social status, and many people who had grown up speaking in these ways were forced to adopt the standardized form. 而书写的语法规则也被套用在口语上。不符合书写语法规则的说话方式被认为是讹用或社会地位低下的象征，许多从小就这样说话的人被迫接受标准形式。 More recently, however, linguists have understood that speech is a separate phenomenon from writing with its own regularities and patterns. Most of us learn to speak at such an early age that we don't even remember it. 然而，近年来，语言学家了解到口语和写作是不同的现象，它自有其规律和模式。多数人在还很小甚至没有记忆时就学会说话了。 We form our spoken repertoire through unconscious habits, not memorized rules. And because speech also uses mood and intonation for meaning, its structure is often more flexible, adapting to the needs of speakers and listeners. 通过无意间形成的习惯，而非背下来的语法规则，我们形成了自己的口语能力。同时，因为说话时还会运用情绪及语调来传达意涵，因而，它的结构常常更为弹性，会随说话人和聆听者的需求而改变。 This could mean avoiding complex clauses that are hard to parse in real time, making changes to avoid awkward pronunciation, or removing sounds to make speech faster. 这可能代表着说话时会避免使用很难立刻理解的复杂子句、调整内容来避开难发出的音，或是省略一些音来让说话速度更快。 The linguistic approach that tries to understand and map such differences without dictating correct ones is known as descriptivism. Rather than deciding how language should be used, it describes how people actually use it and tracks the innovations they come up with in the process. 试图理解并标出这些差异性，但却没有规定哪些是正确语法的语言学取向，被叫作“描述论”。描述论不会决定语言应该如何被使用，它描述人们真实使用语言的情况，并记录这个过程中人们发明的新用法。 But while the debate between prescriptivism and descriptivism continues, the two are not mutually exclusive. At its best, prescriptivism is useful for informing people about the most common established patterns at a given point in time. 不过，尽管规范论和描述论之间的争论仍持续上演着，但这两种学说并非互不兼容。规范论的优点就是有助于让人理解某时期内被最普遍接受的语法规则。 This is important not only for formal contexts, but it also makes communication easier between non-native speakers from different backgrounds. Descriptivism, on the other hand, gives us insight into how our minds work and the instinctive ways in which we structure our view of the world. 这不仅在正式场合上很重要，也能使来自不同背景的非母语人士沟通起来更轻松。另一方面，描述论则让我们一窥大脑思考的方式，以及我们本能看世界的方式。 Ultimately, grammar is best thought of as a set of linguistic habits that are constantly being negotiated and reinvented by the entire group of language users. Like language itself, it's a wonderful and complex fabric woven through the contributions of speakers and listeners, writers and readers, prescriptivists and descriptivists from both near and far. 终归一句，语法被视为一套语言习惯，由所有语言使用者不断商量并改造和建立。正如语言本身，它是一匹瑰丽且繁复的布料，由讲者和听者、作者和读者、规范论者和描述论者以及来自各地的人共同编织而成。 英文语法难难难，你知道难在哪吗？ 1 Parts of Speech 词性 In English there are several parts of speech: 在英文中，常见的词性有以下几种：
Quite often the word will change if it changes it’s function to another part of speech. For example, 'honesty’ noun, 'honest’ adjective, and 'honestly’ adverb. 如果一个单词要改变词性，那么这个词通常会改变其形态。例如诚实的名词是'honesty’，诚实的形容词'honest’，以及诚实的副词'honestly’，其形式在英文中都不尽相同。 This is not always the case: 但这并非总是如此： 'Many English words can belong to more than one part of speech. Words like neigh, break, outlaw, laser, microwave, and telephone might all be either verbs or nouns. In certain circumstances, even words with primarily grammatical functions can be used as verbs or nouns, as in, 'We must look to the hows and not just the whys.’ 许多英语单词可以拥有多个词性。像neigh （马叫; 马嘶声），break（休息; 休息的时间），outlaw (逍遥法外; 逍遥法外的人），laser (激光; 发出激光)，microwave (微波; 使用微波加热）和 telephone (电话; 打电话）这样的词，都可以作为动词或名词来使用。在某些情况下，即使是有重要语法功能的单词也可以用作动词或名词，如“ We must look to the hows and not just the whys.” https://en./wiki/Part_of_speech  In Chinese however, these classifications are even less formally distinguished. Depending on context the word form can stay the same, but have different structural functions. This can make it difficult for student to remember the different word forms in the different parts of speech classifications. Also, the word form may need to change to fulfil the function of the word in the sentence. 然而，在中文中，这些词性的分类就更加模糊。根据上下文的语言环境，单词的形式可以保持不变，但却具有不同的结构功能。这会让学生难以记住不同词性的分类下单词的不同形式。此外，在一句话中，单词可能需要变形来实现它的功能。 以下举例变形错误的例子： 'She likes to walk’ 'I have not son.’ 'He is not doubt about the correct of his a argument.’ 'It is very difficulty to convince him.’ Jung Chung, Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and other Problems (Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers) 2nd Edition 2 Verb Forms 动词形式 In English there are only two true tenses which are shown below: 在英语中，其实只有两个真正的时态。如下所示： Tenses: Present, Past. 时态：现在，过去。 语体：一般，完成，进行，完成进行 语态：主动，被动 Quite often for teaching purposes they are regarded as different tenses due their relationship with time. 为了实现教学目的，它们通常会根据时间关系而被看做不同的时态。 In English verbs are only inflected in the past and present tenses. For example, In the third person verbs are inflected 'go’ and 'goes. In the past tense 'eat’ changes to 'ate’ or 'eaten’. There is no future tense as modal verbs are used to show the futurity not the verb inflected e.g. 'I will (modal) eat (verb in it’s base form) later.’ 在英语中，动词仅会随着过去时态和现在时态而产生屈折变化。例如，在第三人称单数情况下，“去”这个动词从“go”变为“goes”。在过去时态中，“吃”这个动词由“eat”变为“ate”或“eaten”。英文中之所以没有将来的时态，是因为情态动词被用来表示未来，所以动词就不受影响，保持原有形态，例如“I will (情态动词) eat（动词原形）later. ” Chinese unlike English is a non-inflected language. This can cause several difficulties for the learner: 汉语与英语不同，不是一种屈折语。这会给学习者带来一些困难： 1、Subject verb agreement 主谓一致 She like eating fruit. She likes eating fruit. 2、Irregular verb forms 不规则动词 I flied to America last week. I flew to America last week. 3、Complex verb forms 复合动词 The boy was hurting in the accident. The boy was hurt in the accident.  3 Time, Tense and Aspect 时间、时态和体 As mentioned before Chinese doesn't conjugate verbs to show time. Also, aspects can be confusing. For example, the present perfect can be misleading as one function is to relate an event in the past to the present. The learners particularly struggle when to use the simple past tense and the present perfect simple. 如前所述，中文里不会改变动词形态来显示时间。而且，体也是让人困惑的另一个概念。例如，学习现在完成时的时候，学生可能会产生误解，因为它其中一个功能就是将过去发生的事件与现在联系起来。尤其是在学习何时应该使用一般过去时和现在完成时的时候，学生会非常困扰。 For example: 例如： I have seen the movie two days ago. I saw the movie two days ago. And with time markers the present simple continuous can be used with future meaning. 这种困扰也体现在用一般现在时去描述未来的事件。 There is a party tonight. Continuous or progressive tenses can cause problems for Chinese learners. 有时，利用时间标志词，现在进行时可以表示未来。 I’m playing football tomorrow. Continuous or progressive tenses can cause problems for Chinese learners. 因此，进行时态对于中国的英语学习者来说，是一个问题。 What do you listen to? What are you listening to?  4 Verb Patterns 动词类型 Transitive and intransitive verbs can cause problems. 及物动词和不及物动词有时也会造成困难。 'A transitive verb is one that is used with an object: a noun, phrase, or pronoun that refers to the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb.’ “及物动词是可以与宾语一起使用的动词，例如：名词，短语或代词，指的是受动词动作影响的人或事物。” In the following sentences, admire, maintain, face, and love are transitive verbs: 在下面的句子中，admire, maintain, face, 和love都是及物动词： I admire your courage. We need to maintain product quality. An intransitive verb does not have an object. In the following sentences, cry, work, laugh, and talk are intransitive verbs: 不及物动词没有宾语， 在下列句子里， cry, work, laugh, 和 talk 都是不及物动词： The baby was crying. I work for a large firm in Paris. https://en./grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs Learners can use them incorrectly. 学习者通常会错误使用。 'He married with a charming girl.’ 'She talked a few words with one of the passengers’ Jung Chung, Learner English: A Teacher's Guide to Interference and other Problems (Cambridge Handbooks for Language Teachers) 2nd Edition This is made more difficult by the fact some verbs can be both. 事实上，更难的是有些动词既可以同时作及物动词， 也可以做不及物动词。
https://en./grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs The verb form can cause problems as well. 不同动词的形式也会产生问题。 I am boring. I am bored. used the present participle instead of the past participle 应使用过去分词，却用了现在分词 I forgot bringing your food. I forgot to bring your food. used the present participle instead of the infinitive+to 应使用动词to do不定式，却用了现在分词 He’s used to get up early. He’s used to getting up early. used the infinitive + to, instead of a gerund 应使用动名词形式，却用了动词to do不定式 In conclusion, as teachers is important to realize why students are making these errors. We need to design and use activities which provide the students with support to help them overcome these issues from L1 transfer. 总之，作为教师，认识到为什么学生犯这些错误是非常重要的。我们需要设计和利用一些活动来支持学生，帮助他们克服母语迁移中出现的这些问题。  |
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