【原】电的历史第三章磁和电的区分

isHistoria 2022-06-18 发布于广东

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1550: Girolamo Cardano distinguishes between electrical and magnetic forces in De subtilitate rerum.

1600 磁，静电与吉尔伯特(William Gilbert,1544-1603)

Girolamo Cardano

Timeline

1525，Cardano resumed his studies at the University of Padua, where he graduated with a doctorate in medicine in 1525.

1525，In 1525, Cardano repeatedly applied to the College of Physicians in Milan, but was not admitted owing to his combative reputation and illegitimate birth.

1531，There, he married Lucia Banderini in 1531.

1560，Giovanni Battista, Cardano's eldest and favorite son, was tried and beheaded in 1560 for poisoning his wife, after he discovered that their three children were not his.

1570，He made significant contributions to hypocycloids, published in De proportionibus, in 1570.

1570，Cardano was arrested by the Inquisition in 1570 for unknown reasons, and forced to spend several months in prison and abjure his professorship.

Girolamo Cardano(1501-1576)

Girolamo Cardano was a sixteenth century mathematician and physician who made an important adaptation to the design of the camera obscura. He was born on September 24, 1501 in Pavia, Italy, the illegitimate son of a prominent lawyer. He was sickly and impoverished in his youth, but managed to receive an education at universities in Pavia and Padua. He was refused admittance to the College of Physicians at Milan due to his heritage, but was awarded a degree in medicine in 1524 from the University of Padua.

Cardano received an appointment as mathematics chair at Milan in 1532, but continued to practice medicine. He gained a reputation for disagreeing with contemporary medical practices, but was eventually accepted into the school that had previously rejected him and much later was appointed rector of the college. Cardano published a wide variety of works in the medical field, covering such diverse topics as how to teach the deaf and the blind, how to treat syphilis, and how to determine one's character based upon facial expression. Over the years, he became one of the most well known physicians in Europe and accepted a professorship in medicine at the University of Pavia in 1543.

数学贡献

In mathematics, Cardano was equally successful. In 1539, two of his books on arithmetic were published, and, in 1545, Ars magica, the first notable work on algebra, was released. He was one of the first mathematicians to recognize the existence of square roots of negative numbers, now referred to as imaginary numbers, but was also an avid gambler. His interest in dice, cards, and games of chance led to his early development of probability theory. His systematic study and computations were published in Liber de ludo aleae（The Book on Games of Chance）, almost a hundred years before any other important publications on the subject.

物理学贡献

Cardano's most popular works during his lifetime, however, were De subtilitate libri, published in 1550, and its follow-up De subtilitate rerum, published in 1557. The works covered a wide array of topics and contained natural history, anecdotes, physical experiments, and inventions. It was in De subtilitate libri that Cardano made his primary contribution to optics. Within the work, he described the use of a bi-convex lens in conjunction with a camera obscura, the earliest known mention of such a design. He also included detailed descriptions of the improved images he was able to achieve with the configuration, which increased both sharpness and intensity.

Despite a successful career and the publication of over 200 works, Cardano's life was filled with turmoil. He married Lucia Bandarini in 1531, but she died in 1546, leaving Cardano the sole caretaker of three children. His eldest son, who was on the track to becoming a successful physician like his father, was convicted of poisoning his wife and beheaded in 1560. The tragic chain of events was extremely distressful to Cardano, who was further affected when he lost his teaching position because of the scandal. He was, however, offered a position at the University of Bologna and soon relocated to begin work there.

Yet, Cardano's troubles were not over. He suffered another great loss in 1565 when his ardent student and collaborator Ludovico Ferrari died from poisoning. Then, in 1570, Cardano himself became the center of controversy for casting the horoscope of Jesus Christ and attributing the events of his life to the stars. He was convicted of heresy and imprisoned. To gain his release, he was forced to promise to give up teaching and his long career abruptly came to an end. Upon the advice of friends, he moved to Rome, where he lived a quiet life until September 21, 1576 when he died, just three days before his seventy-fifth birthday.

Girolamo Cardano, Girolamo also spelled Gerolamo, English Jerome Cardan, (born September 24, 1501, Pavia, duchy of Milan [Italy]—died September 21, 1576, Rome), Italian physician, mathematician, and astrologer who gave the first clinical description of typhus fever and whose book Ars magna (The Great Art; or, The Rules of Algebra) is one of the cornerstones in the history of algebra.

Educated at the universities of Pavia and Padua, Cardano received his medical degree in 1526. In 1534 he moved to Milan, where he lived in great poverty until he became a lecturer in mathematics. Admitted to the college of physicians in 1539, he soon became rector. His fame as a physician grew rapidly, and many of Europe’s crowned heads solicited his services; however, he valued his independence too much to become a court physician. In 1543 he accepted a professorship in medicine in Pavia.

Cardano was the most outstanding mathematician of his time. In 1539 he published two books on arithmetic embodying his popular lectures, the more important being Practica arithmetica et mensurandi singularis (“Practice of Mathematics and Individual Measurements”). His Ars magna (1545) contained the solution of the cubic equation, for which he was indebted to the Venetian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia, and also the solution of the quartic equation found by Cardano’s former servant, Lodovico Ferrari. His Liber de ludo aleae (The Book on Games of Chance) presents the first systematic computations of probabilities, a century before Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat. Cardano’s popular fame was based largely on books dealing with scientific and philosophical questions, especially De subtilitate rerum (“The Subtlety of Things”), a collection of physical experiments and inventions, interspersed with anecdotes.

Cardano’s favourite son, having married a disreputable girl, poisoned her and was executed in 1560. Cardano never recovered from the blow. From 1562 he was a professor in Bologna, but in 1570 he was suddenly arrested on the accusation of heresy. After several months in jail he was permitted to abjure privately, but he lost his position and the right to publish books. Before his death he completed his autobiography, De propria vita (The Book of My Life).

William Gilbert

1500英国 (1544-1603) William Gilbert威廉·吉尔伯特英国伊丽莎白女王的御医、皇家科学院物理学家。主要在电学和磁学方面有很大贡献 1600发表《论磁》。在电磁学中，磁通势单位的吉伯（Gilbert）就是以他的名字命名，以纪念他的贡献。

Timeline

1544，Dr. William Gilbert was born on 24 May in Colchester.

1569，After gaining his MD from Cambridge in 1569, and a short spell as bursar of St John's College, he left to practice medicine in London and travelled on the continent.

1573，In 1573, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.

1590，Made the first attempt to map the surface markings of the Moon.

1600，In 1600 he was elected President of the college.

1600，His primary scientific work—much inspired by earlier works of Robert Norman—was De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth) published in 1600.

1601，From 1601 until her death in 1603, he was Elizabeth I's own physician, and James VI and I renewed his appointment.

1603，Gilbert died on 30 November 1603 in London.

William Gilbert (/ˈɡɪlbərt/; 24 May 1544 – 30 November 1603), also known as Gilberd, was an English physician, physicist and natural philosopher. He passionately rejected both the prevailing Aristotelian philosophy and the Scholastic method of university teaching. He is remembered today largely for his book De Magnete (1600), and is credited as one of the originators of the term "electricity". He is regarded by some as the father of electrical engineering or electricity and magnetism.[1]

While today he is generally referred to as William Gilbert, he also went under the name of William Gilberd. The latter was used in both his and his father's epitaphs, in the records of the town of Colchester, in the Biographical Memoir that appears in De Magnete, and in the name of The Gilberd School in Colchester.

A unit of magnetomotive force, also known as magnetic potential, was named the Gilbert in his honour.

Life and work

Gilbert was born in Colchester to Jerome Gilberd, a borough recorder. He was educated at St John's College, Cambridge.[2] After gaining his MD from Cambridge in 1569, and a short spell as bursar of St John's College, he left to practice medicine in London and travelled on the continent. In 1573, he was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians. In 1600 he was elected President of the College.[3] From 1601 until her death in 1603, he was Elizabeth I's own physician, and James VI and I renewed his appointment.[4]:30

地球是一个大磁体

His primary scientific work—much inspired by earlier works of Robert Norman[5][6]—was De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno Magnete Tellure (On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the Great Magnet the Earth) published in 1600. In this work, he describes many of his experiments with his model Earth called the terrella. From these experiments, he concluded that the Earth was itself magnetic and that this was the reason compasses point north (previously, some believed that it was the pole star (Polaris) or a large magnetic island on the north pole that attracted the compass). He was the first to argue, correctly, that the centre of the Earth was iron, and he considered an important and related property of magnets was that they can be cut, each forming a new magnet with north and south poles.

他的第一本科学著作--可能受较早的Robert Norman的著作的启发--《论磁及磁体，地球是个大磁体》出版于1600年。在这本著作中，他描写了很多他的，以称之为terrella的地球模型。从这些实验中，他得出结论：地球本身是一个大磁体，这就是为什么指南指指南/指北的原因。在此之前，人们认为是北极星（Polaris）或北极存在的巨大磁导吸引罗盘指向北方。他第一次正确的强调，地球的中心是铁，而且他认为磁铁的一个重要且相关的特性是可以被切割，然后各自成为一个新的磁体，仍然具有北极和南极。

Norman, Robert

Norman, Robert (fl. 1560–1584), maker of mathematical instruments, whose origins are unknown, spent, by his own account, eighteen or twenty years at sea before settling down as a compass maker and self-styled 'hydrographer' at Ratcliff, London. Most of what is known about him comes from his own publications.

Nothing is known of the birth and death dates, parentage, or precise marital status of Robert Norman. All that we have to go on, from information contained in his two published works and a few other scattered fragments, is that he served at sea for 18 or 20 years before settling in the seafaring district of Ratcliff, on the north bank of the Thames, London, as a maker of navigational instruments, and in particular of marine compasses. It was to be in this latter profession that he won both a contemporary and an enduring fame in the history of geomagnetism. In The Newe Attractive (London, 1581), Norman published the first serious study of the magnetic dip. For while the dip had been discovered by the German Georg Hartmann around 1544, Hartmann had only communicated his discovery in a private letter that was not to become known to the wider world until 1831, so that Robert Norman's discovery, announced in print in 1581, can be rightly credited as independent and original.

NORMAN, Robert, translator and editor (fl. 1560-96). The Safegarde of Saylers, or great Rutter. Contayning the Courses, Distances, Deapths, Soundings, Flouds and Ebbes, with the markes for the entring of sundry Harboroughs both of England, France, Spaine, Ireland, Flaunders, and the Sounds of Denmarke, with other necessary Rules, of common Navigation. London: Edward Allde, 1590. Small 4o (173 x 130 mm). Collation: A-X4 Y2. Title within typographic border with a large woodcut of a galleon, Lord Howard of Effingham's woodcut device on verso, small woodcuts of coastal outlines in text, woodcut diagrams at end. (Some headlines shaved). Contemporary mottled calf, gilt edges (rebacked). Provenance: Harrison D. Horblit (bookplate; his sale part I, Sotheby's London, 10 June 1974, lot 41). THIS POPULAR RUTTER OF NORTH AND WEST EUROPEAN COASTS WAS REPRINTED UNTIL 1656, AND ALL EARLY EDITIONS ARE EXCEEDINGLY RARE Third edition of the first English rutter to be illustrated with woodcuts of the coastline. By the time of the publication of The Safegarde in 1584, Copland's Rutter of the Sea had been in print for over half a century, and was outdated. "With the rise of Antwerp to commercial supremacy in the first half of the sixteenth century, Dutch rutters, mostly compiled by mariners from the northern coast of the Low Countries, had come to the fore. By now Dutch rutters were the best... In 1584 therefore Norman published a translation of two Dutch rutters of northern waters" (Waters). It is mainly a translation from a Leeskaart dit is die Caert vander see om oost ende weste te seylen, Amsterdam, 1566, which in turn was based on a number of earlier Dutch works. It is sometimes attributed to Cornelis Anthonisz (1499-1557) who did the woodcut coastal views. Norman follows the example of Pierre Garcie and Cornelis Anthonisz, and used simple woodcuts to illustrate coastal views, to "Safegarde Saylers" navigating the coast of England, France, Spain, Ireland, the Netherlands and Denmark. This popular rutter of North and West European coasts was reprinted until 1656, and all editions, especially early editions, are OF THE GREATEST RARITY. Adams & Waters 3062; STC 21547 (3 copies, including the Horblit copy); Taylor Mathematical Practitioners 62 (the 1584 edition); D.W. Waters Art of Navigation pp.167-68.

磁力

吉尔伯特对近代物理学的重大贡献还在于他提出了质量、力等新概念。在《论磁》中，吉尔伯特说，一个均匀磁石的磁力强度与其质量成正比，这大概是历史上第一次独立于重量而提到质量，通过“磁力”这一特殊的力，吉尔伯特揭示了自然界中某种普遍的相互作用。

旋转

In Book 6, Chapter 3, he argues in support of diurnal rotation, though he does not talk about heliocentrism, stating that it is an absurdity to think that the immense celestial spheres (doubting even that they exist) rotate daily, as opposed to the diurnal rotation of the much smaller Earth. He also posits that the "fixed" stars are at remote variable distances rather than fixed to an imaginary sphere. He states that situated "in thinnest aether, or in the most subtle fifth essence, or in vacuity – how shall the stars keep their places in the mighty swirl of these enormous spheres composed of a substance of which no one knows aught?"

发明第一只验电器，描述琥珀电

The English word "electricity" was first used in 1646 by Sir Thomas Browne, derived from Gilbert's 1600 New Latin electricus, meaning "like amber". The term had been in use since the 13th century, but Gilbert was the first to use it to mean "like amber in its attractive properties". He recognized that friction with these objects removed a so-called "effluvium", which would cause the attraction effect in returning to the object, though he did not realize that this substance (electric charge) was universal to all materials.[7]

The electric effluvia differ much from air, and as air is the earth's effluvium, so electric bodies have their own distinctive effluvia; and each peculiar effluvium has its own individual power of leading to union, its own movement to its origin, to its fount, and to the body emitting the effluvium.

—De Magnete, English translation by Paul Fleury Mottelay, 1893

In his book, he also studied static electricity using amber; amber is called elektron in Greek, so Gilbert decided to call its effect the electric force. He invented the first electrical measuring instrument, the electroscope, in the form of a pivoted needle he called the versorium.[8]

Like others of his day, he believed that crystal (quartz) was an especially hard form of water, formed from compressed ice:

Lucid gems are made of water; just as Crystal, which has been concreted from clear water, not always by a very great cold, as some used to judge, and by very hard frost, but sometimes by a less severe one, the nature of the soil fashioning it, the humour or juices being shut up in definite cavities, in the way in which spars are produced in mines.

—De Magnete, English translation by Silvanus Phillips Thompson, 1900

区分琥珀电和磁的不同

Gilbert argued that electricity and magnetism were not the same thing. For evidence, he (incorrectly) pointed out that, while electrical attraction disappeared with heat, magnetic attraction did not (although it is proven that magnetism does in fact become damaged and weakened with heat). Hans Christian Ørsted and James Clerk Maxwell showed that both effects were aspects of a single force: electromagnetism. Maxwell surmised this in his A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism after much analysis.

Gilbert's magnetism was the invisible force that many other natural philosophers, such as Kepler, seized upon, incorrectly, as governing the motions that they observed. While not attributing magnetism to attraction among the stars, Gilbert pointed out the motion of the skies was due to earth's rotation, and not the rotation of the spheres, 20 years before Galileo (but 57 years after Copernicus who stated it openly in his work "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" published in 1543 ) (see external reference below). Gilbert made the first attempt to map the surface markings on the Moon in the 1590s. His chart, made without the use of a telescope, showed outlines of dark and light patches on the moon's face. Contrary to most of his contemporaries, Gilbert believed that the light spots on the Moon were water, and the dark spots land.[9]

哲学著作

Besides Gilbert's De Magnete, there appeared at Amsterdam in 1651 a quarto volume of 316 pages entitled De Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova (New Philosophy about our Sublunary World), edited—some say by his brother William Gilbert Junior, and others say, by the eminent English scholar and critic John Gruter—from two manuscripts found in the library of Sir William Boswell. According to Dr. John Davy, "this work of Gilbert's, which is so little known, is a very remarkable one both in style and matter; and there is a vigor and energy of belonging to it very suitable to its originality. Possessed of a more minute and practical knowledge of natural philosophy than Bacon, his opposition to the philosophy of the schools was more searching and particular, and at the same time probably little less efficient." In the opinion of Prof. John Robison, De Mundo consists of an attempt to establish a new system of natural philosophy upon the ruins of the Aristotelian doctrine.[10]

Dr. William Whewell says in his History of the Inductive Sciences (1859):[11]

Gilbert, in his work, De Magnete printed in 1600 has only some vague notions that the magnetic virtue of the earth in some way determines the direction of the earth's axis, the rate of its diurnal rotation, and that of the revolution of the moon about it.[12] Gilbert died in 1603, and in his posthumous work (De Mundo nostro Sublunari Philosophia nova, 1631) we have already a more distinct statement of the attraction of one body by another.[13] "The force which emanates from the moon reaches to the earth, and, in like manner, the magnetic virtue of the earth pervades the region of the moon: both correspond and conspire by the joint action of both, according to a proportion and conformity of motions, but the earth has more effect in consequence of its superior mass; the earth attracts and repels, the moon, and the moon within certain limits, the earth; not so as to make the bodies come together, as magnetic bodies do, but so that they may go on in a continuous course." Though this phraseology is capable of representing a good deal of the truth, it does not appear to have been connected... with any very definite notions of mechanical action in detail.[14]

Gilbert died on 30 November 1603 in London. His cause of death is thought to have been the bubonic plague.[15][16]

Commentary on Gilbert

Francis Bacon never accepted Copernican heliocentrism and was critical of Gilbert's philosophical work in support of the diurnal motion of the earth. Bacon's criticism includes the following two statements. The first was repeated in three of his works—In the Advancement of Learning (1605), Novum Organum (1620) andDe Augmentis (1623). The more severe second statement is from History of Heavy and Light Bodies published after Bacon's death.[17]

The Alchemists have made a philosophy out of a few experiments of the furnace and Gilbert our countryman hath made a philosophy out of observations of the lodestone.

[Gilbert] has himself become a magnet; that is, he has ascribed too many things to that force and built a ship out of a shell.

Thomas Thomson writes in his History of the Royal Society (1812):[18]

The magnetic laws were first generalized and explained by Dr. Gilbert, whose book on magnetism published in 1600, is one of the finest examples of inductive philosophy that has ever been presented to the world. It is the more remarkable, because it preceded the Novum Organum of Bacon, in which the inductive method of philosophizing was first explained.

William Whewell writes in his History of the Inductive Sciences (1837/1859):[19]

Gilbert... repeatedly asserts the paramount value of experiments. He himself, no doubt, acted up to his own precepts; for his work contains all the fundamental facts of the science [of magnetism], so fully examined, indeed, that even at this day we have little to add to them.

Historian Henry Hallam wrote of Gilbert in his Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries (1848):[20]

The year 1600 was the first in which England produced a remarkable work in physical science; but this was one sufficient to raise a lasting reputation to its author. Gilbert, a physician, in his Latin treatise on the magnet, not only collected all the knowledge which others had possessed on that subject, but became at once the father of experimental philosophy in this island, and by a singular felicity and acuteness of genius, the founder of theories which have been revived after the lapse of ages, and are almost universally received into the creed of the science. The magnetism of the earth itself, his own original hypothesis, nova illa nostra et inaudita de tellure sententia [our new and unprecedented view of the planet]... was by no means one of those vague conjectures that are sometimes unduly applauded... He relied on the analogy of terrestrial phenomena to those exhibited by what he calls a terrella, or artificial spherical magnet. ...Gilbert was also one of our earliest Copernicans, at least as to the rotation of the earth; and with his usual sagacity inferred, before the invention of the telescope, that there are a multitude of fixed stars beyond the reach of our vision.

Walter William Bryant of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, wrote in his book Kepler (1920):

When Gilbert of Colchester, in his “New Philosophy,” founded on his researches in magnetism, was dealing with tides, he did not suggest that the moon attracted the water, but that “subterranean spirits and humors, rising in sympathy with the moon, cause the sea also to rise and flow to the shores and up rivers”. It appears that an idea, presented in some such way as this, was more readily received than a plain statement. This so-called philosophical method was, in fact, very generally applied, and Kepler, who shared Galileo’s admiration for Gilbert’s work, adopted it in his own attempt to extend the idea of magnetic attraction to the planets.[21]

Bibliography

Gilbert, William; Wright, Edward and Mottelay, P. Fleury (tr.) (1893). William Gilbert of Colchester, physician of London. J. Wiley & Sons. Internet Archive.