-ColorandMusic:p.1-
Colourandmusic.
Therelationshipbetweencolourandmusicaspartofthecomplexconsistingofmusic
andthevisualartshasnotyetbeensystematicallyinvestigated.SinceLisztwroteLo
spozaliziofromAnnéesdePèlerinage(1839),basedonapaintingbyRaphael,compos-
ershaveoftentakenpicturesasinspirationfortheirworks(Fink,1988,lists711such
compositions).Conversely,paintershavederivedinspirationfrommusicalcomposi-
tionsortheabstractideaofmusic.Thesubjectofcolourandmusicencompassesthe
relationshipsbetweencolourandform,lightandmusic,colourandtonalintervals,col-
ourandsound,andindeedpaintingandmusic.Cosmologicalideaspervadethehistory
oftheserelationships,fromantiquitytothe20thcentury.
1.Coloursasrelatedtomusic.
2.Musicasrelatedtocolours.
3.Colourandmusicasanartisticsynthesis.
4.Synaesthesia.
J?RGJEWANSKI
1.Coloursasrelatedtomusic.
Atheoryofmusicfoundedonmathematicalprinciples,anddistinguishingbetweencon-
sonanceanddissonance,hasfrequentlybeentakenasthemodelfortheoriesofcolour
andthebasisforestablishingtheharmonyordisharmonyofcolourcombinations.The
ancientGreekswerethefirsttoconstructascaleofcoloursdividedintosevenparts,on
theanalogyofthesevenmusicalnotesandthesevenknownplanets.Inthisscale,all
coloursderivedfromamixtureofblackandwhite.Consonancesoftonalintervalswere
transferredtocolours(Aristotle,Desensuetsensibilibus,439b–442a).Aristotle''stheory
ofcolourwasconsideredvalidintothe17thcentury,anddifferentcolourswereassoci-
atedwithvarioustonalintervalsinthe16thand17thcenturies,althoughusuallyincon-
nectionwithfurtheranalogiesinsuchheterogeneousfieldsaslevelsofbeing,theplan-
ets,theelements,thephasesofhumanlifeanddegreesofknowledge.Theaimofsuch
analogieswastodefineaharmonyofcolours.HieronymusCardanus(Desubtilitate,
1550,bk13)associatedsevencolours,sevenflavoursandsevenplanetswitheachother.
GioseffoZarlinorelatedtheconsonancesofprimeandoctavetowhiteandblack,and
-ColorandMusic:p.2-
theintermediateconsonancestotheintermediatecoloursofgreen,redandblue(Leisti-
tutioniharmoniche,1558,ptiii,chap.8).AthanasiusKircherdrewupcomplextablesof
analogies,amongotherthingsassociatingmusicalnotes,colours,intensitiesoflightand
degreesofbrightnesswitheachother(Arsmagnalucisetumbrae,1646,p.67).Four
yearslaterhedevisedasystemassociatingcolourswithintervals(Musurgiauniversalis,
1650,i,568).MarinCureaudelaChambretransferredproportionsderivedfromthe
musicaltheoryofintervalstopairsofcolours,anddeviseda‘Systèmedescouleurset
desharmonies’(Nouvellesobservationsetconiecturessurlanaturedel''iris,1650,
p.215).Alltheseattemptsatanalogy,andmanyothersoftheperiod,werebasedonAr-
istotle''stheoryofcolour.Althoughtheconcreteassociationsofthesesystemscannot
nowbereconstructedindetail,andotherworksbytheirauthorscontaincontradictions,
itisclearthattheyrepresentedarationalconceptioninwhichallphenomenawerecon-
structedonthesameprinciplesandreflectedtheharmonyoftheworld.
AndréFélibien,in1666,wasthefirsttoestablishyellow,redandblueasthebasisofa
newcoloursystem.AtthesametimeNewtonwasmakinghisfirstprismaticexperi-
ments,andin1672heassociatedtonalintervalswiththecolourbandsofthespectrum,
‘fortheAnalogyofNatureistobeobserved’(AnHypothesisExplainingtheProperties
ofLight,1675).TherearelingeringremnantsofcosmologicalthinkinginNewtontoo
whenhetracesconnectionsbetweencolours,notesandplanets.Arelationshipbetween
colourandmusicalintervalsnowseemedtohaveaphysicalfoundation,andtheidea
hadNewton''sauthoritytosupportit.ReactiontohisOpticks(1704),inwhichhere-
turnedtotheanalogy,canbeobservedinEngland,France,GermanyandRussia.Under
theinfluenceofNewton,ideasoftherelationshipbetweencolourandmusicdeveloped
inallthesecountries(seeJewanski,1999).
ThemostintensediscussionofthesubjectoccurredinFrance.After1772Rameau''s
writingsconstitutedthepointofdepartureinmusictheory:heregardedtheindividual
chordasthecoreoftheharmonicsystem,andderivedmusicalphenomenafromthe
harmonicseries.Louis-BertrandCastel,aFrenchmathematicianandphilosopher,built
onthesenewideas.Heknewthecolourtheoriesofhisday,thewritingsofantiquityand
thoseofthe16th-and17th-centurytheorists.ReviewingtheFrenchtranslationofNew-
ton''sOpticksin1723,hecommented,withreferencetoKircher''stableofcoloursand
intervals,that‘toallappearancetherangeofoursensesisexactlythesame,andnature
givesusasmanysoundsascolours’(p.1450).After1725Casteldevelopedhisownsys-
temofcoloursandnotes,startingwithC=blue.Headoptedthecolourtheoriesofdyers
andpainters,rejectingthosebasedonNewtonianphysics.Hesimplifiedtherelationship
-ColorandMusic:p.3-
betweencoloursandtonalintervalstoarelationshipbetweencoloursandnotes,liber-
ateditfromitscosmologicalcontext,andatthesametimeattemptedtotransferittoart
asFarbenmusik(‘colourmusic’).Hebuiltaclavecinoculaire,or‘opticalharpsichord’,
whichhedemonstratedforasmallaudienceon21December1754.Everykeyonthe
instrument,whenpressed,openedupashaftthroughwhichcolouredlightpassed.Cas-
tel''sinventioncomplementedearlierattemptstogivethetheoryofcolouramusicaldi-
rectionbyaddingtheideaofanartisticsynthesis.Atthesametime,theconceptofa
purecolourdisplaywasborn.
Thepreviouslyacceptedapplicationofharmonicprinciplestocolourcombinations,al-
thoughnolongerregardedasalegacyofclassicalthinking,wasnowextendedtothe
relationshipbetweenmusicandpainting,anddiscussedinthatlightforthefirsttime.
Castelnotedthatpaintersoftenadoptedthevocabularyofmusic,speakingofcolour
tones,colourharmoniesandevencolourdissonances,whilemusiciansdescribedmin-
gledchordsasimitatingchiaroscuro.Heconceivedofpaintingassimplyacollectionof
coloursandmusicasacollectionofnotes,andextendedthecomparisontoamusique
descouleurs,thetranslationofmusicalpiecesintopictures.In1739,onthebasisof
Castel''sideas,Telemannlistedanumberof‘truths’thatcanbereducedtothefollowing
principles:thecompassofnotesrunsfromlowthroughmediumtohigh,andtherange
ofcoloursfromdarkthroughmediumtolight;themovementofbothnotesandcolours
iseitherrisingorfallingandrangesfromfasttoslow;thedistancebetweenbothnotes
andcoloursisfromonetoitsneighbour;presentationinbothcasesmaybesimultane-
ousorsuccessive.These‘truths’,Telemannconcluded,suggestthat‘afugueinsounds
willmakeupafugueincolours’.Thisisthefirstrecordedmentionofacolourfugue.
Castel''smanyarticlesgaverisetoanimateddiscussion.Weightyargumentsforand
againsttheanalogyofcoloursandnotes,paintingandmusic,wereexpressedbysuch
intellectualgiantsasDiderot,Mairan,RousseauandVoltaire.Itwaspointedoutthat
colourharmoniesdependonfashionwhilethedefinitionofmusicalconsonancealways
remainsthesame;thatadissonanceincolourleavesalessdisturbingimpressionthana
musicaldissonance;thatcoloursmingletocreateaunitincapableofanalysis,aswhen
yellowandbluemakegreen,whereastwonotescombineddonotcreatethenotebe-
tweenthem;thattheperceptionofnotesisalwaysrelatedtoatonicandistherefore
relative,whiletheperceptionofacolourisabsolute;thattheemotionsarousedbymusic
andpaintingarenotattributabletorelationshipsbetweencoloursandnotes;andthat
sequencesofcolourcannotberetainedinthememorylikemusicalmelodies.
-ColorandMusic:p.4-
Although18th-centuryFrenchwritersdeniedadirectrelationshipbetweencolourand
notes,theycompareddrawingandmelody,colourandpitch,andcolourandinstrumen-
taltimbre,without,however,reachingcoherentconclusions.Theideaoftreatingcol-
ourslikemusicwastakenupbyJohannGottlobKrüger,whomadethefirstrecorded
sketchofaFarbenclavecymbelor‘colourharpsichord’(1743,pl.7)whichwouldpro-
duce‘musictodelighttheeye’asacounterpartto‘musicfortheear’.Nothingcameof
hisplans,buttheidealedMosesMendelssohntoproposethenotionofexpressing
melodiesin‘variouskindsofundulatingandflame-likelines’(überdieEmpfindungen,
1755).CarlLudwigJunkercomparedthedrawing,colouringandexpressionofapaint-
ingwiththemelody,harmonyandexpressionofamusicalcomposition(Betrachtungen
überMahlerey,Ton-undBildhauerkunst,1778).Theideaofacolourkeyboardinstru-
mentoperatinganalytically,andotherattemptstotreatcolourslikemusic,fellinto
obliviononcethediscussionofnotesandcoloursshiftedtoitspsychologicaland
physiologicalaspects.Bythelastthirdofthe18thcenturyindividualcoloursandnotes
werenolongerbeingcompared;instead,musicandpaintingwererelatedtoeachother
asawhole,musichavingasuperiorstatusbecauseofitsmoreimmediateinfluenceon
thesoul.‘Noartaffectsthesoulsodirectlyasmusic….Painting,sculptureandarchi-
tecturearedeadthingsbycomparisonwithasweetvoice’(W.Heinse,1780;1977edn,
74).
Intheearly19thcenturyE.T.A.HoffmannandSchumannfurtherbrokedownthe
barriersbetweenthearts.Schumann''sEusebiusclaimed(c1833)that‘theeducated
musicianwillbeabletoderiveasmuchusefulnessfromthestudyofaMadonnaby
RaphaelaswillapainterfromaMozartsymphony’,towhichFlorestanadded,‘The
aestheticsofthetwoartsarethesame;onlythematerialisdifferent’(Schumann,
GesammelteSchriftenüberMusikundMusiker,ed.M.Kreisig,i,5/1914,p.26).Inhis
KapellmeisterKreisler,Hoffmanncreatedthearchetypeofanartistwhotranscendedthe
frontiersbetweendisciplines:‘Ifindcolours,notesandscentsallcomingtogether,not
somuchinadreamasinthatstateofdeliriumthatprecedessleep,particularlywhenI
havebeenlisteningtoagreatdealofmusic’.In1844D.D.Jamesonpropoundedthe
conceptof‘colour-music’,thetranslationofmusicintoaplayofcolours.Laterinthe
centuryH.R.Haweiscalledforaformof‘colour-art’asapendantto‘sound-art’,and
WilliamSchoolingconceivedasilentelectriccolour-organ.A.W.Rimington''s‘artof
mobilecolour’continuedtheideasofthepainterJ.M.W.Turner,whohadexplored
colour''sindependentabilitytorepresentsubjectsinsuchpaintingsasLightandColour
(Goethe''sTheoryofColour)of1843.RimingtonhopedtoreplaceTurner''snaturally
staticcolourshadingbyconstantcolourchanges,thatisbyintroducingmovementinto
colour.Heproducedseveralschemata:atheoryofcolourandmusic,atranslationof
-ColorandMusic:p.5-
producedseveralschemata:atheoryofcolourandmusic,atranslationofmusicintohis
playofcolour,andapureartofcolourwithoutmusic.Orientationbythemusicalmodel
aspreviouslyacceptedcouldnowbeabandoned.
Thefirsttwodecadesofthe20thcenturysawmanyattemptstoestablishthefreeplay
offormandcolourasanindependentartrelatingtomusicinvariousways.Someartists
continuedtoexplorethetranslationofmusicintocolourinaccordancewithCastel''s
ideas(seeKlein,1926;Scholes,1938).Othersdevelopedtheconceptofthe‘absolute
film’basedontheformalpatterns,rhythmicsanddynamicsofmusic.LudwigHirsch-
feld-Mack''sDreiteiligeFarbensonatina,HansRichter''sFilmistRhythmusandViking
Eggeling''sSymphonieDiagonalewereamongtheworksinthisgenrepresentedinBer-
linon3and10May1925.PaulKleetranslatedelementsofmusicintopictorialequiva-
lents.Inhis‘polyphonicpaintings’,suchasPolyphongefasstesWeiss(1930),differ-
entlystructuredareasaresuperimposed,withcolourassumingparticularsignificance.
OfRobertDelaunay''sLesfenêtressurlaville,premièrepartie,premierscontrastes
simultanés(1912),Kleewrotein1917:‘Delaunaytriedtotransferartisticemphasisto
thetemporalaspect,onthemodelofthefugue,byoptingforsuchalengththatthe
wholepicturecannotbeseenatonce’(PaulKlee:Tagebücher1898–1918,ed.F.Klee,
Cologne,1957,p.383).Theideaof‘kineticpainting’(Diebold,1921)waspromotedin
bothGermanyandtheUSA,whereW.H.Wrightspokeofthenewartthatwoulduse
theresourcesofacolourorganinsteadofcanvasandpaint:‘Thecolor-organ,infact,is
thelogicaldevelopmentofallthemodernresearchesintheartofcolor’(TheFutureof
Painting,1923,p.49).From1922ThomasWilfredperformedsilent‘Lumia’composi-
tionsonhis‘Clavilux’,givingthemopusnumbersandsometimesmusicaltitles.Many
colourorganswerebuiltwithaviewtocreatingkineticartthroughplaysofchanging
colour(Goldschmidt,1928).
LuigiVeronesi''sChromatischeVisualisierung:J.S.BachKontrapunktNo.2aus‘Kunst
derFuge’(1971)wasbasedonaphysicalparallelbetweencolourandmusic.InJakob
Weder''scycleofpicturesOrchestersuite3inD-DurvonJ.S.Bach(1980–81),eachof
thefivemovementsofthesuiteisassociatedwithacolourthatsupposedlyreflectsits
characterandsubject.Theseparatecoloursaremodulatedwithshadingderivedfrom
thestructureofthemusic.
2.Musicasrelatedtocolours.
Inthe20thcenturythetemporaldifferencesbetweencoloursandnotes,ormusicand
painting,werenolongerseenasirreconcilable.PainterssuchasAdReinhardtandMark
-ColorandMusic:p.6-
Rothkointegratedatemporalelementintotheirworks,usingcolourproceduresthat
madetheactoflookingatapictureaprocessinitself.Inmusictimeseemstostandstill
insuchworksasLigeti''sVoluminafororgan(1961–2,revised1966)andAtmosphères
fororchestra(1961),wheretheeliminationofrhythmmakestonalcolourparamount,
andformisconstructedbyagradualsuccessionofstatesofsound.Ligetidescribedthe
processofharmonictransformationinhisorchestralworkLontano(1967)asakindof
polyphonyoflight:animaginaryperspectiveiscreatedbymeansofreflectionsandre-
fractions,slowlyrevealingitselftothehearer‘asifhewerecomingoutofbright
sunlightintoadarkroom,andonlygraduallyperceivingcoloursandshapes’(O.Nord-
wall,Gy?rgyLigeti,1971,p.114).AsearlyasSchoenberg''sFarben,fromFiveOrches-
tralPieces(1909),thetwothemesarereducedtotheirsmallestpossibleextentbothin
numberofnotesandinrange;themelodicfunctionisobliterated,andonlytonalcolour
remains.Thecompositionmaybeseenasanattempttotransfertomusicthewidevari-
etyofshadesofasinglecolourfoundinpainting,extendingtheopportunitiesopento
musicbytheattempttocomposeincolour.
Incompositionbasedoncolours,andinmusicreferringtopictures,theprecisenature
ofthestimulusprovidedbythecoloursorthepaintingmaynotbeevident.Ifthecom-
poserhasgivennootherindication,analysisofthescorewillnoteventelluswhether
therewasanyextra-musicalstimulusatall.Withoutknowledgeofthisprogramme,itis
impossibletolinkcoloursandmusic.Moreover,thecharacterofindividualcoloursis
variable;theterm‘red’,forinstance,doesnotdefinethecolourexactly.Onlyasmall
numberofcolourscanbechosen,usuallylimitedtothoseofthe12-partcolourcircle,
andtheirexpressivecharacterhasnomorevarietythansuchcommondescriptionsof
musicalmovementsasadagio,moderatoorallegro.InBliss''sAColourSymphony
(1921–2),eachofthefourmovementsbearsthenameofacolour:‘Purple’,‘Red’,
‘Blue’and‘Green’.Theheraldicsignificanceofthecolours(greenforinstance,being
associatedwithemeralds,hope,youth,joy,springandvictory)isreflectedinthechar-
acterofthemusic.PalleMikkelborgusedthenamesofcolourstodescribethemove-
mentsofAura(Sony463351–2,1989),whilethesingerLaurenNewtonandbassist
Jo?lleLéandrehavetranslatedpaintingtechniques(forinstanceFrankStella''smono-
chromepaletteinStellaBlack)intocontemporaryjazz(18Colors,LeoLR245,1997).
Besidesthegeneralassociationofcolourandmusic,colourhasbeenequatedwithindi-
vidualmusicalparameters.Messiaenemployedhissubjectiveassociationofcolours
withchords,formsandthemesinsuchworksasSeptHa?ka?(1962).Inthefifthmove-
mentofthisworkhewroteintothescorethecolourstobeassociatedwiththechords,
-ColorandMusic:p.7-
andinhisprefacetoCouleursdelaCitéCéleste(1963)heexplained:‘Theformofthis
workdependsentirelyoncolour’.Themelodicandrhythmicthemes,thecomplexof
soundsandtimbres,evolvelikecolour.InMichaelDenhoff''scycleDieblaueVier–
MusikzuBildernvonJawlensky,Klee,KandinskyundFeininger(1977)thereare‘cor-
respondencesofgestusandsoundtocoloursandforms’,forinstance‘whenthepris-
maticinterlockingandshadingofcoloursinFeininger''sGelmerodaIXcorrespondsto
thechangingtonalplayofcloselysimilarchordswhosetemporalconstructionderives
fromtheproportionsofthepicture’(Denhoff,1993,p.17).
3.Colourandmusicasanartisticsynthesis.
Asearlyas1889,inhisoperaMlada,Rimsky-Korsakovsynchronizedstagelighting
withuseofcolourwordsinthelibrettoandapatternofkeysinthemusic.Independ-
ently,Skryabinsoughttosynthesizeallsensations.InhisProméthéefororchestra,cho-
rusandtastieraperluce(colourorgan)of1908–10,coloursandsoundswereassociated
inapatternthatisdifficulttoreconstruct.InDieglücklicheHand(1913)Schoenberg
wantedtheemotionsarisingfromtheactiontobeexpressedbymeansotherthanmusic
alone:‘itshouldbeevidentthatmovements,coloursandlightaretobetreatedinthe
samewayasnotesareusuallyhandled:theymustmakemusic.Figuresandstructures
aretobeformed,asitwere,fromvariouslightvaluesandshadesofcolour,resembling
thestructures,figuresandmotifsofthemusic’(StilundGedanke:Aufs?tzezurMusik,
ed.I.Vojtech,Frankfurt,1976,p.238).Kandinskyalsotriedtoachieveanartisticsyn-
thesisbyusingmethodsfromeachartinhisstageworkDergelbeKlang(1912).Writ-
inginDerblaueReiter,hegavedetailedinstructionsforthecolours,butonlyvague
indicationsofthemusic,forinstance:‘Someindistinctchordsintheorchestra.Curtain
up.Darkbluetwilightonstage,whitishatfirst,laterbecominganintensedarkblue.Af-
terawhileasmalllightappearsatthecentre,becomingbrighterasthecolourdeepens.
Orchestralmusicafterawhile.Pause.Achorusisheardoffstage’(1912,p.212).Only
sketchesofThomasHartmann''sscoreforthispiecehavebeenpreserved;itwasrecon-
structedbyGuntherSchullerin1982.AmorerecentworkisbySchnittke(1973–4,rev.
1983),whointendedhisdancecompositiontobeseenaspartofamultimediatheatreof
movement.
InBartók''soperaBluebeard''sCastle(1911,firstperformed1918),thecomposerinte-
gratedthecolouredlightofthesevenroomswiththeprevailingkeys.Ataboutthesame
time,GranvilleBantockadvocatedtheuseofcolouredlightintheconcerthallforper-
formancesofhisAtlantainCalydon(1911),butnolitperformanceisknowntohave
beengiven.MaryElizabethHallock-GreenewaltgavepianorecitalsinPhiladelphiaac-
-ColorandMusic:p.8-
companiedbya‘lightcolorinstrument’whichfilledtheconcerthallwithcolourscom-
plementingthemusic.Intheyears1925–7AlexanderLászlógaveconcertsofworksin
thenewgenreofFARBLICHTMUSIK(colour-lightmusic),inwhichmusicandcolour
weretobelinkedasarts.InVishnegradsky''smultimediaexperimentMosa?quelu-
mineusedelacoupoledutemple(1942–),heaimedtoprojectcoloursontheceilingofa
templewhilemusicwasplayed;likeSkryabin,hedreamtoftheawakeningofacosmic
consciousness.Therehavebeenmanyattemptstore-createProméthée,Dieglückliche
HandandDergelbeKlang,butthevisualexpectationsthataudienceshavedeveloped
frommodernvideoclips,lightshowsatpopconcertsandlaser-beamspectacleshave
madesuchreconstructionsproblematic.
Colour,orcolouredlight,hasalsobeenemployedinmanyworkscomposedsince1945.
ShchedrinaddedaluceparttoPoetoria(1968)toillustratetheformofthemusicand
thesymbolismofthetextbydifferentcolours.Xenakislinkedlight,colour,musicand
architectureinPolytope(1967),Persépolis(1971),PolytopedeCluny(1972)andLe
diatope(1978).InGubaydulina''sAllelujaforchorus,boysoloandorchestra,withcol-
our,organadlibitum(1990),colourisabasicrhythmicelementintheformaldevelop-
mentofthemusic.(Rihmaddedapart,‘DasLicht’,tohisoperaDieEroberungvon
Mexicoof1992,withdynamicindications,butassuggestionsratherthanactualinstruc-
tions.)Stockhausen''sseven-partoperaticcycleLicht(1977–)seekstoachieveaunityof
music,light,words,movementandstagedesign,referringtoesoterictraditionsand
aimingtocreatea‘cosmicworldtheatre’(M.Kurtz,Stockhausen,1988,p.275).In1993
thepainterHansWernerBerretz(HaWebe)beganworkingwithGubaydulina,Denhoff,
GalinaUstvol''skaya,VioletaDinescu,WinfriedMariaDannerandBerndH?nschkeon
aseriesofworksinwhichthescorebecomespartofthepicture.Primarycoloursillus-
tratethemusicalparameters(redforpitchandduration,blueforrhythm,yellowfor
melody,greenforharmony)andmingledcoloursaccompanysuchnon-musicalele-
mentsasthetext.
4.Synaesthesia.
Althoughanyassociationofcolourandmusicmaybedescribedassynaesthesia,itmost
frequentlytakestheformof‘colour-hearing’,theinvoluntaryperceptionofcoloursby
someonehearingsoundsorlisteningtomusic.Untilthelate18thcenturycoloursand
notesorintervalswereassociatedbyaprocessofanalogyacceptedasscientificmethod
(see§1above).Notuntiltheturnofthe19thcenturydidwritersuseverbalmetaphors
linkingcolourandmusictoexpressthenewspiritofthetimes,withmusicpromotedto
thetopoftheartistichierarchy.
-ColorandMusic:p.9-
Thefundamentaldifficultyinassessingtheartisticsignificanceofsynaesthesiaisthatin
thecaseofmanymusiciansandartistsitisimpossibletobesurewhethertheyareex-
periencingsynaesthesia,haveaheightenedsensitivitytointerdisciplinaryassociations
and/orareseekingnewwaysofexpressingthemselvesbydeliberatelyblurringthefron-
tiersbetweenthearts(forinstanceinsound-sculptures).TheworksofSkryabin,László,
MessiaenandDenhoffinvolvesynaestheticphenomenaintheprocessofcomposition,
butitisnotclearwhethertheyaretruesynaesthesiasinthesenseofCytowic''scatalogue
ofcriteria(seeSYNAESTHESIA)andtheyarenotnecessarilyperceivedassynaestheticby
thehearer.Becausesynaesthesiavariesfromonepersontoanother,problemsarise
when,asinSkryabin''sProméthéeandLászló’sFarblichtmusik,uniformperceptionof
themusicandthecolourimageisfundamentaltotheunderstandingofamultimedia
performance.
Fourcongressesdevotedtocolourandmusic,directedbyGeorgAnschütz,wereheldin
Germanybetween1927and1936.In1962thePrometheusStudiowasfoundedatthe
TechnicalUniversityofKazanintheformerSovietUniontostudytheartisticsignifi-
canceofsynaesthesias.ResearchonsynaesthesiahasalsobeencarriedoutattheMediz-
inischeHochschule,Hanover.TheInternationalSynaesthesiaAssociationhasitshead-
quartersintheUK.
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