DictionDictionisthechoiceandtheuseofwordsWord:theunitofm
eaningandstructureTypesofthewordsAccordingtoitsfeat
ure:--Contentwords&functionalwords(meaning)
(structure)Accordingtoitspartofspeech:--N.V.Adv.
Adj.andetc.Accordingtoitsfrequency:--Activewords&pa
ssivewordsWordsthatyoucanunderstandandcanusefreely.Wor
dsthatyoucanunderstandbutcannotusefreely.Howtomakea
gooddiction?By:UsingtheAppropriateWord—Levelo
fwordsUsingtheExactWord—Meaningofwords
UsingFigurativeLanguage—FiguresofspeechUsingtheA
ppropriateWordChoosingtheappropriatewordisessentialinexp
ressingyourideasaccuratelyanddecently.Wordsareappropriate
whentheysuityoursubjectandthepurposeofyourwriting,the
roleyouareassuming,theattitudeyouwanttoproject,andthe
readersyouarewritingfor.LevelsofWordsWordsaregenerall
yclassifiedintofourgroupsaccordingtodifferentlevelsofus
ageorformality:FormalStandardorcommonColloquialorinfo
rmalSlangFormalWordsFormalwordsmayalsobecalledlearned
words,orliterarywords,or“big”words.MostofthemareofGre
ekofLatinorigin.Formalwordsaremorecommonlyusedonaddres
ses,eulogies,articlesforscholarlyjournals,technicalreports
,legaldocuments,etc.FormalEnglishavoidscontractionsandco
lloquialexpressionsandthereforesoundsdifferentfromtheway
averagepeoplespeak.Example:Thereisnothingnewintherecogn
ition,withinagivenlanguage,ofadistinctionbetweencommonu
sageandusesofthelanguageformorerestrictedpurposesandof
tenenough,perhapscharacteristically,moreelevatedpurposes.T
hemonolithicnatureofEnglishisnotquestionedwhenliterarye
ssayistslikeEmersoncontrastpoetryandcommonspeech.Thelatt
erisrecognizedinAmericantobethepropersubjectfortheinv
estigationofLinguistswho,however,nowshowsomeincipientinc
linationtoinvestigatepoetry,too,andothernoncasualutteranc
esinagivenlanguage.Note:Recognition(formal)knowing(com
mon)seeing(common)characteristically(formal)typically(rela
tivelycommon)elevated(formal)better(common)higher(common)
monolithic(formal)inseparable,unchangeable(relativelycommo
n)investigation(formal)research,study(common)incipient(f
ormal)early(common)beginning(common)noncasual(formal)spec
ial(common)serious(common)careful(common)inclination(for
mal)preference(relativelycommon)liking(common)utterance(
formal)speaking(common)StandardorCommonWordsStandardorc
ommonwordsarethoseusedbythewidestgroupofeducatedspeake
rsandwriters.Commonwordsarepopularincollegewriting,and
areoftenemployedinnewspaper,textbooks,non-fiction,bestsel
lers,etc.CommonEnglishiseasytounderstand,andcomplieswel
lwiththewrittenlanguage.Example:WhenIwasakid,andreadi
ngeverysciencefictionbookinthelocallibrary,Iusedtowon
derexactlyhowthefuturewouldhappen.BythatIdon’tmeanwha
tthefuturewouldbelike----sciencefictionalreadytoldmetha
t----butratherhowwe’dactuallygetthere.Sciencefictionbook
sseemedtoagree,forexample,thatinthefuturetherewouldbe
nomoney----alltransactionswouldbemadeviaidentitycardsan
dcentralizedcomputers.Butthatseemeddubioustome:how,Iwo
ndered,areyougoingtogeteverybodytogiveupmoneyinthefi
rstplace?Note:kid(colloquial)child(common)tra
nsaction(alittleformal)business/trade(common)dubious(ali
ttleformal)doubtful/unlikely(common)ColloquialorInformalW
ordsColloquialorinformalwordsareusuallyshortwordsofone
ortwosyllablesandmostofthemareofSaxonorigin.Colloquial
orinformalwordsareoftenusedinspokenlanguageandinwriti
ngaimedforaconversationaleffect.Example:Youhaveyourten
sion.Sometimesyoucomeclosetohavinganaccident,thatupsets
you.Youjustescapemaybebyahairorso.Sometimesmaybeyou
getadisgruntledpassengeronthere,andstartsabigargument.
Traffic.Youhavesomeonewhocutsyouofforstopsinfrontoft
hebus.There’salotoftensionbehindthat.Yougottowatchal
lthetime.You’rewatchin’thedrivers,you’rewatchin’otherca
rs.Mostofthetimeyouhavetodrivefortheotherdrivers,to
avoidhittingthem.Soyoutakethetensionhomewithyou.Note:
byahairorso:byalittlechanceonthere:There
cutsyouoff:makeyousuddenlystopThere’s:T
hereisgotto:MustYou’re:Youarewatchin
’:watchingSlangWordsSlangreferstonovelandcolorfulexpres
sionsthatreflectacertaingroup’sspecialexperiencesandset
thegroupofffromothersSlangisusedbyalmostallgroupsofp
eople,frommusiciansandcomputerscientiststovegetariansand
golfers,oruneducatedspeaker.Slangdisplaysendlessinventiven
ess.Itmaybevividandinteresting,butisimpreciseforeffect
ivewriting,andisgenerallyinappropriateforcollegeorbusine
sswriting.Example:I’llattendtothatmyselfinth’mornin’.I
’lltakekeero’’im.Heain’tfromthiscountrynohow.I’llgod
ownthereinth’mornin’andsee’im.Lettin’youleaveyourbooks
andgallivantalloverth’hills.Whatkindofaschoolisitno
how!Didn’tdothat,myson,whenI’salittleshaverinschool.
Note:th’mornin’:themorningtakekeero’’im:takec
areofhimsee’im:seehimLettin’:Letnohow:
anyhowI’s:Iwasalittleshaver:ali
ttleboyExercise1Pleaseexplaintheunderlinedwordswithsome
morecommonwords.1.AbizarreexperimentintheUnitedStates
hasdemonstratedthatpsychiatristscannotdistinguisheffectiv
elybetweenpeoplewhoarementallydisturbedandthosewhoares
ane.bizarre(formal) demonstrate(formal) mentallydisturbed(f
ormal)2.AttheendoftheinterviewtheytoldmethatIwould
benotifiedofanyvacanciessuitabletomyexperienceandqualif
ications.notify(formal)vacancy(formal)3.Av
erytrivialcircumstancewillservetoexemplifythis.trivial(f
ormal) circumstance(formal)4.Theabsenceofvariationinthe
resultofourexperimentsgaveusconfidenceinthescientificla
w.absence(formal) variation(formal)5.Inascientificinquir
y,afallacy,greatorsmall,isalwaysofimportanceandissure
tobe,inthelongrun,productiveofmischievousresults.falla
cy(formal) beproductiveof(formal) mischievous(formal)1.Ab
izarreexperimentintheUnitedStateshasdemonstratedthatpsyc
hiatristscannotdistinguisheffectivelybetweenpeoplewhoare
mentallydisturbedandthosewhoaresane.bizarre(formal) demon
strate(formal) mentallydisturbed(formal)strange(common) pro
ve(common) mad(common)odd(common) show(common)2.Atthe
endoftheinterviewtheytoldmethatIwouldbenotifiedofan
yvacanciessuitabletomyexperienceandqualifications.notify
(formal)vacancy(formal)tell(common)
job(common)3.Averytrivialcircumstancewillserveto
exemplifythis.trivial(formal) circumstance(formal)common(co
mmon) incident(common)small(common)thing(common)
4.Theabsenceofvariationintheresultofourexperimentsgave
usconfidenceinthescientificlaw.absence(formal) variation
(formal)lack(common) difference(common)5.Inascientificin
quiry,afallacy,greatorsmall,isalwaysofimportanceandis
suretobe,inthelongrun,productiveofmischievousresults.f
allacy(formal) beproductiveof(formal) mischievous(formal)mi
stake(common) produce(common) harmful(common)
cause(common)Exercise2Identifytheleve
lofthefollowingsentences?Whenhisdaddied,Petehadtoget
anotherjob.Afterhisfather’sdeath,Peterhadtochangehis
job.Onthedeceaseofhisfather,Mr.Brownwasobligedto
seekalternativeemployment.Pete’soldwomanhittheroofwhe
nhecamehomewiththatdollfromthedisco.Peter’swifewa
sveryangrywhenhecamehomewiththegirlfromthediscotheque
.Whenhisdaddied,Petehadtogetanotherjob.(collo.)Aft
erhisfather’sdeath,Peterhadtochangehisjob.(com.)On
thedeceaseofhisfather,Mr.Brownwasobligedtoseekalternat
iveemployment.(fml.)Pete’soldwomanhittheroofwhenhecam
ehomewiththatdollfromthedisco.(colloquial,impolite)P
eter’swifewasveryangrywhenhecamehomewiththegirlfromt
hediscotheque.(common)UsingtheExactWordTheexactwordsuit
stoyourpurpose,yourmeaning,andyourreader’sbackground,in
terests,andexpectations.Tochoosetheexactword,youmustbe
clearaboutthedenotationandconnotationofaword,thediffere
ncesbetweengeneralandspecificwords,abstractandconcretewo
rds,andhaveagoodmasteryofEnglishidioms.TheMeaningofWo
rdsDenotation:isthespecific,direct,andexplicitmeaningof
aword.Thedenotativemeaningofawordcomesdirectlyfromits
referentandismostlygainedfromadictionaryConnotation:is
theassociativeorsuggestivemeaningofaword.Theconnotative
meaningispersonalandmostlydeducedfromone’sexperience.Th
eSemanticTriangleof“Winter”Reference/Concept(Connotation):
desolate,icy,dead,treeless,bitter,barren,snow,cold,chill,
whiteExample:country:anareaoflandanditspopulationandg
overnmentnation:thepeopleofacountrystate:thegovernmento
rpoliticalorganizationofacountryland:(emotive:motherland,
homeland)EnglandisasmallercountrythanChina.
ThePresidentspokeonradiotothenation.Sh
ouldindustrybecontrolledbythestate?Chinaismy
nativeland.SynonymsSincetheconnotationsofwordsmayvarya
longanumberofdimensions,itisdifficulttofindtwowordsth
atareexactlythesameinmeaninganduse(structure).Theymay
beidentical,buttheywillneverbeequivalent.Usually,thecom
mondimensionswillbefrom“informal”to“formal”,from“weak”t
o“strong”,from“emotionless”to“emotional”,from“favorable”t
o“unfavorable”orformdifferentcollocations.Example:informal
-formalask:informalquestion:askmanyquestionsinterrogate:
suggestingthatthepersonisbeingheldbyforceandaskedquest
ionswhichtheyareunwillingtoanswer.Heaskedabouthis
newjob.Twomenarebeingquestionedbythepoliceinconnec
tionwiththerobbery.TheJapaneseofficerswereinterrogate
dasprisonersofwar.Example:informal-formaltime:aperiod;
aperiodinhistoryage:aparticularperiodinhistoryepoc
h:longperiodinhistory,markedbyimportanteventsItwi
lltakeyoualongtimetolearnFrenchproperly.Inancient
times,peopleworeclothesmadeoffur.Hehasreachedhis
retirementage.TheywerelivingintheStoneAge/IronAge.
Thefirstflightintospacemarkedanewepochinthehistor
yofmankind.Thesteam-enginewasanepoch-makingevent.E
xample:informal-formalrise:goup;gethighermount:formalgo
up;climbascend:formalgotoahigherlevel,climbSmoker
osefromthefactorychimneys.Theoldladymountedthestair
swithdifficulty.Heascendedthestairs.Victoriaascen
dedthethrone.(becamequeen)Example:weak-strongbig
:biglarge:unusuallybighuge:extremelyla
rgeemphatic(formal)Putthebooksinthebigbox.Wuhanis
abig/largecityinCentralChina.Theteamhasgotahugemano
vertwometerstall.Example:emotionless-emotionalsmall:(emoti
onless)little:(implyingafeelingoffondness)Theylivedi
nasmalltown.(describingthearea)Icanneverforgetthel
ittletownwhereIspentmyhappychildhood.(Ilikeit.)Exa
mple:favorable-unfavorablemodest:notproud(avirtue,laudator
y/favorable)humble:havingalowopinionofoneself(derogatory/
unfavorable)Modestandhardworking,hemadeveryquickpro
gressatschool.ClearlyGomperswasoverawedbyWilson.His
facetookonaservilelook;hisvoicewashumble.Example:sy
nonymsproud:showingproperandreasonablerespectforoneself;
havingtoohighopinionofoneselfarrogant:unpleasantlyproud,
withanunreasonablestrongbeliefinone’sownimportancehaught
y:seemingtoconsideroneselfbetterormoreimportantthanothe
rs;arrogantinsolent:showingdisrespectfulrudenessTheyarepo
orbuttooproudtoacceptmoneyfromthestate.Thearrogantoff
icialdidnotlistentopeople’sprotest.Thehaughtylookofth
eyoungladymadeeveryonekeptadistancefromher.Theinsolen
tchildrenrushedintothehousewithoutgreetingtheguests.Not
NecessarilySynonymsDonottaketheChineseequivalentofanEn
glishwordasitsexactmeaning,orunderstandingthemeaningof
anEnglishwordfromitsChineseequivalent.Englishwordsthatm
aybetranslatedintothesameChineseexpressionarenotnecessa
rilysynonyms.BecauseusuallyanEnglishwordhasnoexactChine
seequivalentandithastobetranslatedindifferentwaysindi
fferentcontexts.Example:Family:agroupofpeople,includingp
arents,children,grandparents,uncles,aunts,livingtogetherho
me:theplacewhereonelives(denotation)warmth,safety,co
mfort,love/coldness,burden(connotation)Thewholefamilycam
etovisitusatChristmas.Ileftmyexercisebookathome.Ex
ample:except:leavingout;notincludingbesides:inadditionto
;aswellasWeweretiredexcept/besidesJohn.stri
ct:exactrigid:stiff,inflexible,difficulttochange
Weshouldobeytheregulationsstrictly.Weshouldn’
tobeytheregulationsrigidly.GeneralandSpecificWordsGenera
lwordsnameclassesorgroupsofthings.Thesewordsareneeded
inclassificationanddefinitionSpecificwordsrefertoexample
sofagroup.Specificandconcretenounsexpressmeaningmorevi
vidlythangeneralorabstractones.Generalandspeci
ficarerelativeterms,becausetherearedegreesofgenerality.
e.g. Professional Scientists Chemists Building House
Logcabin ClothesSwimmingsuit Bikini
general
specificExample:housemansion:alargehouse,usu.bel
ongingtoawealthypersonvilla:apleasantcountryhouseinits
owngarden,oftenusedforonlypartoftheyearforholidays,e
sp.insouthernEurope:We’rerentingavillainthesoutho
fFranceforthesummer.Chateau:acastleorlargecountryhouse
inFrancebungalow:ahousewhichisallononelevelcabin:1.
aroomonashipusu.usedforsleeping2.thesmall
enclosedspaceatthefrontofanaircraftinwhichthepilotsit
s3.asmallroughlybuiltusu.woodenhouse:Theyli
vedinalittlelogcabin.hut:asmallsimply-madebuilding:The
ylivedinamudhut/awoodenhut.shack:asmallroughlybuilth
ouseorhutshanty:asmallroughlybuiltusu.woodenormetalho
useshed:alightlybuiltsingle-flooredbuilding,oftenwooden,
usedesp.forstoring:atoolshed/cattleshed/garden
shed/anairplaneshedbarn:afarmbuildingforstoringcropsand
foodforanimals,orforkeepinganimalsExample:laughbeam:
tosmilebrightlyandhappily:Hebeamed(acheerfulw
elcome)asheopenedthedoor.guffaw:tolaughloudly,andperh
apsrudelychortle:v.n.(togive)alaughofpleasureandsatisf
actionHechortledwithdelightwhenItoldhimmy
news.chuckle:tolaughquietly:Icouldhearh
imchucklingtohimselfashereadhisbook.snigger:derog.To
laughquietlyandsecretlyinadisrespectfulway:
Thechildrensniggeredattheoldlady’sstrangehat.giggle:to
laughquietlyinasillychildishuncontrolledway:
Stopgiggling,girls;thisisaseriousmatter.grin:tomake
awidesmileExercise1Arrangethefollowingnounsaccordingto
degreesofgenerality:1.Germanshepherdanimal
creaturedog2.flowerstulips
plantcreaturenature3.transpor
tvehicleplaneBoeing757man-madedevice4
.acoldillnesstroub
lething5.AuntSallyare
lativepeopleacquaintance6.novelPr
ideandPrejudiceliteraturewriting7.s
cientistsprofessionalschemists
biochemistsIdiomsAnidiomisafixedgroupofwordswithasp
ecialmeaningwhichisdifferentfromthemeaningsofthewordst
hatformit.Usually,problemsinidiomarecausedbycollocation
,especiallythecollocationofprepositionsandverbsoradjecti
vesExample:phrasalverbsputupwith:informaltosuffer(some
thingannoyingorunpleasant)withoutcomplainingIcan’tputup
withyourrudenessanymore;leavetheroom.Thatwomanhasalo
ttoputupwith.(=hasmanytrouble)turnout:1.Tostoptheo
perationof(alight)byturningaswitchTurnthelightout.2.
(turnsomebodyout)toforcetoleave;sendawayHerfatherturne
dherout(ofthehouse)whenshebecamepregnant.3.tocomeout
orgather(asif)forameeting,publicevent,etc.Enormouscro
wdsturnoutfortheprocession.4.(turnoutsomething)informal
toproduce;makeThisfactorycanturnout100carsaday.5.(t
urnoutsomething)toclearoremptythecontentsof(acupboard
,drawer,etc.)Thepolicemantoldhimtoturnouthispockets.6
.tohappentobe,orbefoundtobe,intheend.It’sturnedout
niceandsunnyagain.Thepartyturnedoutasuccess.(=although
wethoughtitmightnotbe)Tooursurprisethestrangerturned
outtobe(=wediscoveredthathewas)anoldfriendofmymothe
r’s.Hisstatementturnedouttobefalse.Example:phrasalver
bsLookforwardto:toexpectwithpleasureI’mreallylookingf
orwardtoyourparty.Ilookforwardtoreceivingyourreplyass
oonaspossible.Carryon:1.tocontinue,esp.inspiteofani
nterruptionordifficultiesWecancarryonourdiscussionafter
lunch.2.Informaltobehaveinafoolish,excited,oranxiousma
nnerYoushouldhaveheardhercarryingonwhenwetoldherthen
ews.Iwishyou’dstopcarryingon(=complaining)aboutit.Come
across:1.tomeet,find,ordiscover,esp..Bychanceshecame
acrosssomeoldlettersinthecourseofhersearch.2.tobeeff
ectiveandwellreceivedYourspeechcameacrossverywell.Examp
le:n.+prep.+n.Astrawinthewind:asignofwhatmayhappenTh
esestoriesofarmsbuild-upalongtheborderarestrawsinthew
ind.Theappleofone’seye:informalone’sfavoritepersonorth
inglikeafishoutofwater:uncomfortablebecauseoneisinas
trangeplaceinaworldofone’sownExample:prep.+n.inkind:
1.(ofpayment)usinggoodsornaturalproductsratherthanmoney
2.withthesametreatmentIpaidhimbackinkindforcheating
me.=(Icheatedhim)ontheair:broadcastingWeshallbeonthea
irinfiveminutes.atlength:1.(formal)usingmanywords;in
greatdetailShespokeatlengthaboutthedisadvantageofintern
et.2.lit.afteralongtime;atlastAtlengthhereturned.Wit
hflyingcolors:verysuccessfully;splendidlyHepassedhisexam
swithflyingcolors.Example:v.+n.Won’tholdwater:seemno
ttrue,reasonable,orbelievableHisexplanationofwherehegot
themoneyfromjustdoesn’tholdwater.Slipone’smind:beout
ofone’smemoryItslippedmymind.(=Iforgotit.)killtwobird
swithonestone:togettwogoodresultsfromoneactionSinceW
endylivesnearmymother,I’llcallinonheraswellandkillt
wobirdswithonestone.gotothedogs:tobecomeruined,esp.t
ochangefromabettertoaworsemoralcondition.“Thiscountry’
sgoingtothedogs!”saidtheoldman.Example:fixedstructure
aseasyaspie:informalveryeasyasbigaslife:notabletob
emistaken;realI’dthoughthewasinAmerican,butwhenIturne
dround,therehewas,bigaslife.asdifferentasnightandday
aspoorasachurchmousewearandtear:thedamagingeffectsof
ordinaryuseoveralongperiodWhenyoucalculatethevalueof
thecaryoumustallowforwearandtear.highanddry:inahelp
lesssituationTheytookallthemoneyandleftushighanddry.
touchandgo:risky;ofuncertainresultItwastouch-and-gowhe
therthedoctorwouldgetthereintime.inblackandwhite:inw
ritingIwantthisagreementinblackandwhite.UsingFigurativ
eLanguageFIGURESOFSPEECH1.Simile 2.Metaphor 3.Personific
ation4.Metonymy 5.Synecdoche 6.Euphemism7.Irony 8.Overstat
ementandunderstatement9.Transferredepithet10.Oxymoron11.
AlliterationSimileSimile:itisacomparisonbetweentwodistin
ctlydifferentthingsandthecomparisonisindicatedbytheword
asorlike.Omylove’slikeared,redrose.
------RobertBurnsTha
tmancan’tbetrusted.He’sasslipperyasaneel.Theoldman’
shairisaswhiteassnow.Patternsofsimile1.XislikeY.(
Xstandsfortheliteralterm/tenor,whileYstandsforthefigur
ativeterm/vehicle.)Mywife’snewhatislikealighthouse.The
manwalkedawaylikeaduck.2.X…asY.Youcannothopetomove
me,asyoucannotexpectthesuntoriseinthewest.Ihavesqu
anderedmylifeasaschoolboysquandersatip.3.X…(as)…asY:T
heyareasidleasapaintedshipuponapaintedocean.4.AsY…(
,)soX…:Ascoldwatertoathirstysoul,soisgoodnewsfrom
afarcountry.Patternsofsimile5.XistoAwhatYistoB:Th
epenistoawriterwhatthegunistoafighter.6.X…asif(as
though)Y:HetalkedasifhewerethepresidentoftheUnitedS
tates.Thegirlscreamedasthoughshehadseenaghost.7.Xis
…thanY:Sheisfarsweeterthantheflower.8.XsurpassesY:I
nclearness,theriverwatersurpassesthepurestcrystal.Metap
horMetaphor:itistheuseofawordwhichoriginallydenoteson
ethingtorefertoanotherwithasimilarquality.Itisalsoa
comparison,butthecomparisonisimplied,notexpressedwiththe
wordasorlike.Thepictureofthosepoorpeople’sliveswasc
arvedsosharplyinhisheartthathecouldneverforgetit.Ther
ewasamedievalmagnificenceaboutthebigdinning-hall.Thestr
eetfadedintoacountryroadwithstragglinghousesbyit.Meta
phorTherewereafewlordlypoplarsbeforethehouse.Allhisfo
rmerjoywasdrownedintheembarrassmentandconfusionhewasfe
elingatthemoment.Heoftenprefacedhisremarksby“Ican’the
lpthinking…”thecharcoalfireglowedanddimmedrhythmicallyto
thestrokesofthebellows.PatternsofmetaphorFull-lengthme
taphor1.X(tenor)isY(vehicle):life’sbutawalkingshadow,
apoorplayer.
------Shakespeare2.YofX:I’veclimb
edthatdamnedladderofpolitics,andeverystephasbeenrough.
------U.S.VicePresidentHubertHumphrey3.X,Y(inappositi
on):“youlittleMexicanrat,”hissedfrombetweenDanny’slips.
4.XorY(asmodifier):Thelovelygirlhasarosycheek.Patte
rnsofmetaphor“Compressed”metaphor:themetaphorstatesonlyo
netermofthecomparison,leavingtheotherimplicit.Leavesgo
tupinacoilandhissed,Blindlystruckatmykneeandmissed.
PatternsofmetaphorExtendedmetaphor:ametaphorwhichisdeve
lopedbyanumberofdifferentfigurativeexpressions,extending
perhapsoverseveralclausesorsentences,andinvolvingseveral
tenorsandvehicles.Alltheworld’sastage,Andallthemenan
dwomenmerelyplayers:Theyhavetheirexistsandtheirentrance
s;Andonemaninhistimeplaysmanyparts.
------Shakespe
arePersonificationPersonificationistotreatathingoranide
aasifitwerehumanorhadhumanqualities.Youthishotandb
old,Ageisweakandcold,Youthiswild,andAgeistame.------
ShakespeareThematchwillsoonbeoveranddefeatisstaringus
intheface.Thistimefatewassmilingtohim.Personification
Thunderroaredandapouringrainstarted.Duskcamestealthily.
Thestormwasragingandanangryseawascontinuouslytossingt
heirboat.Thefallingleavesaredancinginthewind.Onefine
day,fortunesmiledonGrandfather.Thewindsobbedinthetrees
.MetonymyMetonymyissubstitutingthenameofonethingforth
atofanotherwithwhichitiscloselyassociated.Swordandcro
ssinhand,theEuropeanconquerorsfellupontheAmericas.When
thewarwasover,helaiddowntheswordandtookupthepen.His
pursewouldnotallowhimthatluxury.SynecdocheWhenaparti
ssubstitutedforthewholeorthewholeissubstitutedforapar
t,synecdocheisapplied.Thefarmswereshortofhandsduringt
heharvestseason.Hehadtoearnhisdailybreadbydoingoddjo
bs.GermanybeatArgentina2to1inthisexcitingfootballmatch
.Thepoorcreaturecouldnolongerendurehersufferings.Addit
ionalExamples1.Karajanhadruledhisaugustorchestra,theBer
linPhilharmonic,ofwhichhehadbeennamedconductorforlifei
n1955------withabrilliantearandanironfist.2.Everybodyk
nowsthatJohnlosthisshirtwhenthatbusinesshehadinvested
infailed.3.Thefirstnightitwasjustaparty,alark,…thes
econdnightpeople’stempersweregettingshortandtheywerepoi
ntingfingers.4.Herbehaviorwhenherhusbandisawaycausesth
eneighborstoraisetheireyebrows.AdditionalExamples5.“New
YorkisthesocialOlympics,”asonecommentatorputsit.“Ther
estarejusttryouts.”6.Hehitthepanicbuttonwhenhesawthe
month’sfigures.7.Earlierintheday,alongwithafavoriteau
ntanduncleandachildlessneighborcouple------alsocalled“Au
nt”and“Uncle”bymesincethecradle------Ihadpartakenofour
family’straditionalSundaybrunch.EuphemismEuphemismisthe
substitutionofamildorvagueexpressionforaharshorunpleas
antone.Todietopassaway,toleaveus;o
ne’shearthasstoppedbeat
ingoldpeopleseniorcitizensmad
emotionallydisturbeddustmansanitation
workerlavatorybathroom,men’s(women’s)room
Euphemisminvasion,raidmil
itaryactiondrivinginhabitantsawayorcontrollingthem
pacificationconcentrationcamps
strategichamletsInanopenbarouche…stooda
stoutgentleman…,twoyoungladies…andaladyofdoubtfulage,pr
obablytheauntoftheaforesaid,...IronyIronyistheuseo
fwordswhichareclearlyoppositetowhatismeant,inorderto
achieveaspecialeffect.Itwasrainingheavily.“whatfinewea
therforanouting!”Abarbarousactwascalledcivilizedorcult
ural.Itisatruthuniversallyacknowledgedthatasinglemanin
possessionofafortunemustbeinwantofawife.PartymavenM
arthaStewart:FoodintheSovietUnionisfine,ifyoulikepork
tartar.Blessedtheyoung,fortheyshallinheritthenationald
ebt.AdditionalExamplesHistorically,thedesiretohoardgold
athomehasbeenprimarilyanoccupationoftheworkingandpeasa
ntclasses,whohavenofaithinpapermoney.GeorgeBernardShaw
defendedtheirinstinctseloquently,“Youhavetochoosebetween
trustingtothenaturalstabilityofgoldandthenaturalstabil
ityofthehonestyandintelligenceofthememberofthegovernme
nt,”hesaid,“andwithduerespectstothesegentlemen,Iadvise
you…tovoteforgold.”AdditionalExamplesWhenthecourtadj
ourned,wefoundDayton’sstreetsswarmingwithstrangers.Hawker
scriedtheirwaresoneverycorner.Oneshopannounced:DARWINI
SRIGHT------INSIDE.(ThiswasJ.R.Darwin’sEverythingtoWearS
tore).Oneentrepreneurrentedashopwindowtodisplayanape.S
pectatorspaidtogazeatitandponderedwhethertheymightber
elated.“Thepoorbrutecoweredinacornerwithhishandsov
erhiseyes,”areporternoted,”afraiditmightbetrue.”Overs
tatementandUnderstatementInoverstatementthedictionexaggera
testhesubject,andinunderstatementthewordsplaydownthema
gnitudeorvalueofthesubject.Overstatementisalsocalledhyp
erbole.Sheisdyingtoknowwhatjobhasbeenassignedher.On
hearingthathehadbeenadmittedtothatfamousuniversity,hew
hisperedtohimself,“I’mtheluckiestmanintheworld.”ittook
afewdollarstobuildthisindoorswimmingpool.“Heisreally
strange,”hisfriendssaidwhentheyheardhehaddivorcedhispr
ettyandlovingwife.AdditionalExamples1.Thetwosistersare
differentinathousandandoneways.2.Thereisalethalcombi
nationofhighcostsandhighticketpricesatwork,andfundamen
tally,onenewspapercanshutdownashow.3.Inthegrainbelt,
newinvestmentsresultedincorn,wheatandsoybeansbeingplante
d“fencecrowtofencecrow”.Farmersweregearedupandgoingstro
ng,butitdidn’tlast.Withwhatseemedtobethesnapofyourf
ingers,grainpricesstartedalongroller-coasterridedownward
inthelate1970s.4.Theresult(oftherecentlocalelection)e
ncouragedconservativecriticswhowerecallingforThatcher’ssc
alpinthefaceofpoll-taxprotests,8percentunemployment,15
percent-plusinterestratesandahugetradedeficit.Additional
Examples5.Hehadhiredphysicianswellaslawyers,theycried
tohighheavensthattheworldkillhimtoleavethegenialclima
teoftheAtticplain.6.IfSaddamHusseingoesoutofpower,no
tearistobeshed.7.RetiredmarineColonelJohnv.Brennanco
ntractedwiththesecretivearmsdealertosellIraq$181million
worthofuniforms.Accordingtoalawsuitfiledlastmarch,form
erVicePresidentSpiroAgnewservedasan“intermediary”between
thetwo.HowmuchmoneydidAgnewmakeinthedeal?Soghnanlian,
thedealer,says,“Hedidnotgohungry.”TransferredEpithetA
nepithetisanadjectiveordescriptivephrasethatservestoch
aracterizesomebodyorsomething.Atransferredepithetisoneth
atisshiftedfromthenounitlogicallymodifiestoawordassoc
iatedwiththatnoun.Shewassoworriedabouthersonthatshes
pentseveralsleeplessnights.Inhisquietlazinesshesuddenly
rememberedthatstrangeword.Theassistantkeptarespectfuldis
tancefromhisbosswhentheywerewalkinginthecorridor.Hesa
id“Yes”tothequestioninanunthinkingmoment.Theoldmanput
areassuringhandonmyshoulder.OxymoronInoxymoronapparent
lycontradictorytermsarecombinedtoproduceaspecialeffect.
Thecoachhadtobecrueltobekindtohistrainees.Whenthen
ewsofthefailurecame,allhisfriendssaidthatitwasavicto
riousdefeat.Thepresidentwasconspicuouslyabsentonthatocca
sion.Shereadthelong-awaitedletterwithatearfulsmile.AlliterationAlliterationreferstotheappearanceofthesameinitialconsonantsoundintwoormorewords,suchas“proudasapeacock”and“blindasabat”.Alliterationisoftenusedinpoetrytogiveemphasistowordsthatarerelatedinmeaning:whereforefeed,andclothe,andsave,fromthecradletothegrave,ThoseungratefuldroneswhowouldDrainyoursweat------nay,drinkyourblood?------PercyByssheShelleyAlliterationAlliterationissometimesusedinproseforthesameeffect------tojointwoormorerelatedwords.Iseealsothedull,drilled,docile,brutishmassesoftheHunsoldieryploddingonlikeaswarmofcrawlinglocusts.TheRussiandangeristhereforeourdanger,…justasthecauseofanyRussianfightingforhishearthandhomeisthecauseoffreemenandfreepeoplesineveryquarteroftheglobe.------WinstonChurchillaspeechonHitler’sinvasionoftheSovietUnionin1941Exercise:Namethefigureofspeechusedineachofthefollowingsentences:1.Herrichrelativesrainedbirthdaypresentsonheronlyson.(metaphor)2.Wrongideasmayharmamanjustlikediseases.(simile)3.Somewordsmaybedefacedbycarelessusage.(personification)4.Theleavesaretremblinginthecoldwind.(personification)5.Thestormwassoangrythatitwantedtodestroyeverythinginitsway.(personification)6.ManypeoplebowedbeforeForce,buteventuallyForcewouldsurrendertoReason.(personification)7.Selflesspeoplearelikecows,whicheatstrawbutproducemilk.(simile)8.“Whatdoyouthinkoftheroastduck?”“Notbad.”(understatement)9.Hisfriendspraisedhisdaughter’sperformancestotheskies.(overstatment)10.Hiswritingisclearandclean.(alliteration)11.Hisunfriendlytonguesurprisedher.(transferredepithet)12.Thereisfertilesoilforpopularmusicinchinatoday.(metonymy)Symbol(word)winterReferent(thing/denotation):thecoldestseasonoftheyear,includingthemonthsofDecember,January,andFebruarye.g.Laughterdriveswinterfromthemind.Sheisinthewinterofherlife. |
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