3.Responsetime响应时间Thespeedwithwhichthedetectorcandete ctanx-rayeventandrecovertodetectanotherevent;探测器探测一个X线信 号到为下一个信号作好准备的时间Afterglow余辉问题4.Accuracy准确性LowelectronicNoi se低电子噪声Linear线性Uniformity 探测器均匀一致性Instantaneousstability瞬时稳定性5. Dynamicrange动态范围the“ratioofthelargestsignaltobemeasure dtotheprecisionofthesmallestsignaltobediscriminated”测 量最大信号和分辨最小信号精度的范围6.RadiationDamage辐射损伤探测器受辐照增益变化III.Detect ortypes探测器类型Solidstatedetectors固体探测器Earlydetectorsscint illatorse.g.NaI早期固体探测器Modernceramicscintillators稀土陶瓷探测器X enongasdetectors气体探测器Scintillationdetectors闪烁体探测器或固体探测器Sc intillation闪烁体Photoncapture电子俘获Light光Photo-diode光电二极管Si gnal信号利用光电倍增管将闪烁转换为电信号,再用电子线路和器件将它放大和存储下来。把发光物质即闪烁晶体和光电倍增管组合起来, 便构成了闪烁计数探测装置。探测效率高、分辨时间短……固体探测器得到了广泛应用固体探测器结构2.UFCdetector TheUFCdetectorconsistsofindividualelementsconsistingofc eramic(陶瓷)scintillationcrystalsaffixedtothesurfaceoflight -sensitivediodeswhicharemountedonacircuitboard;UFC探测器由一 组黏附在电路板上的光敏二极管表面的陶瓷闪烁晶体单元组成Theseparatedevicecontrolsthetemp eratureandhumidityofthedetectorelements.有单独的设备控制探测器元件的温度和湿 度Pro’s-highlyefficient;优点—高效Con’s-expensive; 缺点——贵Pressurisedxenongas高压氙气Ionization电离Signal信号 3.Xenondetectors气体探测器X-rayAsradiationentersthedetector, itionizesthexenongasbetweenelectrodes;射线进入探测器,使电极间的氙气电离Dur ingtheisolationprocess,thepositiveionsareattractedtothe negativelychargedplate,thenegativeionsareattractedtothep ositivelychargedplate;在绝缘过程中,正离子吸引至负收集板,负离子吸引至正收集板Thesignal currentvariesdirectlywiththenumberofx-rayphotonsabsorbed ;信号电流直接随X线光子吸收改变而变化。StructureThexenongasdetectorconsistso fpressurechamberseparatedinternallyintomanycompartments;气 体探测器由分散在很多隔间内部的压力电离室组成。电离室的上下夹面由陶瓷拼成;每个电离室两侧用薄钨片构成;电离室内充满氙气;各个中 心收集电极引线连至相应的前置放大器,气体探测器特性Thedeeperthegaschamber,thehigher thepressure,themoreefficientthedetector;压力室越深,压力越大,探测器效率越高 Tolerancetotemperatureandhumidity;耐温度、湿度Infrequentcalibra tionrequirements;校准需求低Constantchanneltochannelresponse;响应 一致HighX-raygeometriccollectionefficiency;几何效率高Cheap;便宜Lo ngtermstability;长时间稳定Noafterglow;没有余辉BUT!Lowefficiency 效率低RequireHighmAsWhenpressuredecreasethedetectefficienc ydecreasedremarkably压力降低,探测效率显著下降XenonvsSolidState气体和固体的对 比固体探测器气体探测器温度特性关系大、需调温关系不大噪声、颤噪效应无有饱和效应无有散射线准直需要一般不 需,准直效果差剂量利用率无盲层有盲层变形易变形无变形DetectorArrangement探测器排列Detec torsin3rdgenerationscannersarrangedinanarcaroundthepat ient;第三代扫描仪的探测器绕着患者排列成弧状。600-900elementsindetectorbank-t oallowgoodspatialinformation;探测器中有600–900个元件—允许好的空间信息Tube anddetectorsrotatearoundpatient球管和探测器都围绕患者旋转。探测器组件Referen ceDetectors参考探测器X射线经前准直器后被参考探测器接收。测得的信号对应于入射组织的X线初始强度。§3.6 DAS数据采集系统DAS~DataacquisitionsystemFunction将输出信号放大、积分后,多 路混合成一路用A/D转换器变为数字信号送入计算机处理;ThecomponentsofDAS1.Pre-amplif ier前置放大器2.Integrator积分器3.Multiplexer多路转换器4.A/D转换器5. D/A转换器由探测器接收信号,经对数压缩使后续电路工作在一个较窄的范围;积分器接在放大器之后测量每个角度下的光子总和;各路 积分器输出信号经多路混合变成一路使用共同的A/D转换器变为数字信号;将连续时域模拟信号转变为离散的数字化信号;CT一般要求大于1 6bit将数字图像变为显示终端的模拟信号,一般用6~8bit§3.7Gantry机架andPatienttabl e诊视床Gantry机架床Gantry(机架)俗称:龙门架作用:完成特定扫描方式的扫描,以获得病人扫描层面的原始 数据,供计算机系统进行图像处理放置X-CT部件扫描架性能扫描架孔径应足够大,绝大多数的机架孔径为70cm旋转倾斜性能好,大 多数可以倾斜±30?。冷却:开机后X线球管产生热量,且机架内含有众多组件,某些组件直接影响到机架周围的温度,因此机架的制冷要考虑 机械设计:CT的机械设计很严格旋转:机架旋转时产生的离心力~高要求旋转部分组件的重量基本上都在400~1000kg范围加速 到每秒2圈的旋转速度,集成到旋转轴承内的线性驱动能够保证足够的匀速运动。Gantry(机架)Patienttable(诊 视床~couch)Convenientcontrol/andpositionreadout;便于控制和读数Stron gandrigidtosupporttheweightofthepatient;足够的强度和刚性来承载体很重的患 者Accurate;精确性好Easyloading;方便装载Adjustable;可以调节Tabledownand up诊视床的上升和下降Theverticalmovementshouldprovidearangeofheig htsfromthefloortomakeiteasyforpatientstogetonandoff thetable;诊视床应该具备在一定范围内的上升和下降,便于患者上下;Itisespeciallyusefulwh enexamininggeriatric,trauma,andpediatricpatients;对于老年患者,外伤和 儿童患者尤其有用;Tablefunction诊视床功能Horizontalorlongitudinalcouchm ovementsshouldenablethepatienttobescannedfromheadtothi ghswithouttheneedrepositioning;可以水平和垂直移动,便于扫描全身,无须重新摆位;Couc htopandpedestal诊视床面和底座Couchtoprestsonapedestal(托架).Is usuallymadeofcarbonfibercomposites(碳纤维成分),becausetheyhave lowabsorptionandexcellentvibrationdampingfeatures;吸收射线少、抗震 动性好;Thepedestalhousesthemechanicalandelectricalcomponents thatfacilitatecouchmovement;诊视床的底座有机械和电子元件使床运动.EndHeat capacityvs.anodeangle热容量与靶面倾角Forthesameeffectivefocalsp otsize,theheatcapacityincreasesastheanodeangledecreases 有效焦点一样时,热容量增大,阳极角度减小;HEATHEATEFFECTIVEFOCALSPOTSIZEEFFECT IVEFOCALSPOTSIZEELECTRONSELECTRONSANODEANODE450300II.4 NewCTxraytube(Straton?x-raytube)MedicalPhysics--Septe mber2004--Volume31,Issue9,pp.2699-2706Anovelcoolingp rincipleononehand,anovelbeamcontrolsystemontheotherhan d.全新的冷却原理和射束控制技术Straton?x-raytubeProvidesdirectcoolingof theanodewithallbearingslocatedoutsidethevacuum.阳极和轴承置于真空 之外,对阳极直接冷却;Eliminatestheneedforwaitingtimesduetoanodeco olinginclinicalworkflow.(无需等待冷却)Straton球管与传统球馆的不同在于阴极和阳极一起固定 在绝缘油中球管工作时,不单是阳极旋转,而是在马达的带动下整个球管的旋转;阳极的背面直接靠在管壁上极易散热,冷却油通过循环直接将 热带走;偏转线圈的作用是使电子束达到适当的阳极位置,轰击靶面产生X线;通过偏转线圈的信号控制可改变焦点位置~飞焦点。Strat on?x-raytubeTubeFailure球管损坏Tubearcing打火Filamentbreakag e灯丝击穿Statorfailure定子损坏NormalAnodeWear阳极击穿IV.1Generatorpu rpose高压发生器作用Thegeneratorproduceshighvoltageandtransmits ittothex-raytube.Thishighvoltagepropelstheelectronsfr omthex-raytubefilament(灯丝)totheanode发生器提供高压并将其传输到X线管,使得电子 从球管灯丝到达阳极Providetheheatcurrentoffilament灯丝加热电流TimeContr ol控制X线曝光时间IV.2Generatorform发生器形状Inthepast,thehigh-volt agegeneratorwasabulkypieceofequipmentlocatedinacorner ofthex-rayroom过去高压发生器是大体积的设备,安置在X线室的一角。CTscannernowusehi gh-frequencygenerators,whicharesmall,compact,andmoreeffic ient.ItislocatedinsidetheCTgantry如今CT扫描仪使用高频发生器,它的体积更小,更紧 凑,效率更高。安装在CT机架内Insomescanners,thehigh-frequencygeneratoris mountedontherotatingframe安放在旋转架内Whereasinothersitis locatedinonecornerofthegantryanddoesnotrotate安放在机架的一角固 定不动IV.3SinglekVporvariablekVp单项kVp和可变kVpAgeneratorc anhaveasinglekVporvariablekVpoutputkVpaccuracyismore easilyachievedinsinglekVpsystems单kVp输出系统的kVp更精确VariablekV psystemsdoallowforanincreasedcapabilitytodiscriminatedi fferenttissuesVariablekVp输出系统区别不同组织的能力提高Generatorshavediff erentpowerratings,from3to60kW,theseratingsenableawide rangeofexposuretechniquestobeselected,generally80,100,12 0,130,140kV,and30,50,60,100,125,150,175,200mA;Whenusinga variablekVpsystem,requiresaverysophisticatedgenerator(复杂的 发生器)IV.3GeneratorPulseorContinuousContinuousGenerator连续式 发生器A“continuouson”generatorrequireslessmaximumpowerandp ermitsmorephotonstopowerandpermitsmorephotonstobeused intheimagingprocess连续方式对发生器最大功率要求较低,允许更多的光子被激发,同时也就使得用于图象处理中 的光子数更多由于螺旋CT尤其是MSCT的需求,现均采用连续式PulsedGenerator脉冲式发生器要求较高的瞬时功率 ,并可在脉冲间歇时间内自动地进行每个测量通道的零点校准投影数与被检测物体的要求相匹配脉冲方式可以利用适当的发生器来切换从脉冲 到脉冲的X射线管电压,并可以在测量系统旋转一周时摄制出两幅不同能量的图像(连续工作方式却做不到这一点)。这是有效地应用双谱线法的重 要先决条件。第三代广泛应用目前不再采用§3.3Filters滤过器tubeoutputdetectorIo ImI=I0e-mdI0Idm1m2m3mnI0II=I0e-dSmii=1ndI=I 0e-mxdxmxI0I0DxDTubeoutputenergyobjectIdeaMonoene rgeticUniformRealPolyenergeticNonuniformI.ThePurposeofFi ltersToabsorblow-energyx-rays(softX-Ray)thatdonotcontri butetotheacquisitionofCTimage吸收对CT成像没有贡献的软射线。Bydoingthi s,patientdoseisreducedandthebeamqualityincreases(beam “harder”)降低患者剂量并提高射线质量(射线变硬)Toshapetheenergydistributionac rosstheradiationbeamtoproduceuniformbeamhardeningwhenx- rayspassthroughthefilterandtheobject使出射射束能量分布定型为均匀一致的硬射束 2.TwotypesoffiltersFlatfilter平板滤过器copperoraluminum铜或 铝制成tomodifythex-rayspectrumuniformlyacrosstheentirefie ldofview在整个FOV范围内射线能量均匀Bow-tiefilter蝴蝶结滤过器或楔形滤过器Toreducet hedynamicrange(减少动态范围)ofthedataacquisitionsystem根据大人、小孩要做 更换Avoidingbeam-hardeningartifactAdequatebeamfiltrationfla tfilter“bowtie”filter§3.4Collimators准直器§3.4Collimato rs准直器Purpose:目的usedforcollimatingthex-raybeamtoadesi redwidth用于校准X线束到期望宽度Types:类型thetubecollimator(Pre-patient collimator)球管侧准直器(前准直器)thedetectorcollimator(Post-patientco llimator)探测器侧准直器(后准直器)准直器X-RAYTUBE1MMCuFILTERBEAMLIMITT INGEARSPOSTPATIENTCOLLIMATORDETECTORSLICETHICKNESSPLATES BEAMSHAPER(NOTINTOMOM/EG)单层CT的准直器7mm5mm3mm2mm10mm (COLLIMATOR)Pre-patientcollimator前准直器Shapethebeams射束塑型 Scanthickness扫描层厚(单层面CT)Theumbra:uniformity本影区均匀The penumbrae:non-uniformity半影区不均匀SliceProfilePost-patie ntcollimator后准直器Shapesbeamalso射束塑型helpstoremovescatter 消除散射ensureconstantbeamwidthatdetector确保到探测器的射束宽度一致可不用,如有 前后准直器必须精确对准,否则产生条形伪影准直器的原理辐射衰减物质,用以限制到达探测器组件的放射线角度分布空间定位,即仅局限于 某一空间单元的射线进入探测器,而其他部分的射线则被屏蔽而不能进入探测器准直器的材料选择对X射线吸收大,易于加工,经济一般采 用铅或含有少量的锑、铋的铅合金等探测器的发展钨酸镉晶探测器(CdWO4)---70年代高压氙气探测器(Xenon )---80年代闪烁晶体探测器(GOS)---80年代稀土陶瓷探测器(ceramic)---80年代 末“红宝石”探测器=石榴石晶体+磷化合物(LefightSpeedCT750HD)Aquiliondetector §3.5DetectorsI.PurposeGatherinformationbymeasuringthe x-raytransmissionthroughtheobject;测试穿过物体的X线Detectorelem ent探测器单元X-raybeamX线束Electricalsignalproportionaltox-ray beamintensity与X线强度成正比的电信号II.CharacteristicEfficiency效率Stab ility稳定性Detectorresponse响应……1.Efficiency效率Theability tocapture,absorb,andconvertx-rayphotonstoelectricalsign al;捕捉、吸收、转换X线光子形成电信号的能力;Thetotaldetectorefficiency,referred toasthedoseefficiency,istheproductofthecaptureefficien cy,absorptionefficiency,andconversionefficiency;总探测器效率(剂量效率 )指探测效率、吸收效率和转换效率的乘积。2.Stability稳定性thesteadinessofthedetec torresponse.探测器响应的稳定性Ifthesystemisnotstable,frequentcali brationsarerequiredtorender(补偿)thesignalsuseful;如果系统不稳定,就 需要频繁的校准来补偿信号的作用。ComponentsofaCTscannerCT扫描仪组成计算机操作台监视器 X发生器X-RAYTUBECOLLIMATOR探测器DAS扫描架BODY扫描床§3.1Component sofaCTscannerCT扫描仪组成ComponentsofaCTscannerCT扫描仪组成数据采集 阶段包括:X射线管、探测器、准直器、滤过器、对数放大器、模数转换器(A/D)、接口电路等图像重建阶段包括:计算机、D/A转换 器等图像显示阶段包括:图像显示器、相机、接口电路等等整个系统由中央系统控制器操纵,加上检查床便构成一台完整的X-CT系统Co mponentsofaCTscannerCT扫描仪组成§3.2X-RayTube球管的发展球管功能及构成 球管特性球管新技术球管的高压发生器§3.2X-RayTubeI.球管的发展固定阳极(stationaryan ode)X线管(I、II代CT、牙科CT等)旋转阳极(rotatinganode)X线管(全身CT)II.X-Ray tubecomponentsandfunctions球管构成及功能球管组成Envelope外壳Cathode阴极 Anode阳极ProtectivehousingX射线管防护罩II.2.1Envelope球管外壳Fun ction:maintainvacuum真空状态~保证电子在真空管内的自由加速Demand:withstandtrem endousheat(耐受高温),MinimizeXrayabsorption(降低X线吸收)MadeofP yrexglass(耐热玻璃)ormetalFramePyrexglass:较好的隔热、绝缘性能Metal:绝缘性能 提高、冷却好、耐用(适于CT)Tubewindow:Asegmentofglassthatisthinner thantherestoftheglassenvelope.Contributestoinherentfilt ration:0.5mmAlequivalency.II.2.2Cathode阴极Twoprimaryparts :Filament灯丝Focusingcup聚焦杯TheFilamentfunction灯丝功能Whencu rrent(mA)isappliedtothecoilofwire,electronareejected. 发射电子TheFilamentmaterials灯丝材料usuallymadeoftungsten钨材料h igherthermionicemission高的热电子发射率highmeltingpoint高熔点Append Thorium(钍)~增加电子发射率和延长灯丝寿命Focusingcup聚焦杯Containsanegative charge.负极Designedtorepel(排斥)electronsandcondenseelectron beamtosmallareaononfocaltrack.聚焦到达阳极的电子;II.2.3TheAnode Assembly阳极组件Function:电子在阳极受阻,韧致辐射产生X线TypeStationaryanode 固定阳极Rotatinganode旋转阳极StationaryAnodeX-rayTube固定阳极X线管 Usedfordentalx-rays,someportableimaging牙科X射线、部分便携式成像设备 Usedwhenhightubecurrentandpowerarenotrequiredbecauseth eyarenotcapableofproducinghigh-intensityx-raybeamsinas horttime不需在短时间内产生高强度X射线,因此用于球管电流和功率要求不高时RotatingAnodeX-rayT ube旋转阳极X线管Tungsten-rheniumalloy(铼钨合金):弹性、寿命Molybdenum(钼):高热容 量Graphite(石墨):更高热容量Theadvantageoftherotatinganode旋转阳极的优点 HighPower功率大TheeffectivesizeofFocusdecrease有效焦点变小II.2.4 ProtectiveHousingX射线管防护罩Madeoflead&steel由铅和钢制成Thefun ctionofProtectiveHousing:UsefulX-Raybeam产生有用X线Provide smechanicalsupport(支撑)forthetubeandprotectsfromroughhand lingSometubescontainoilthatservesasaninsulatoragainste lectricshockandasathermalcushion-dissipateheatSomeprot ectivehousinghascoolingfantoair-coolthetubeandoilW henx-raysareproduced,theyareisotropicemitted各向同性发射X线use fulorprimarybeamleakageradiationII.3Thecharacteristicsof x-raytube球管特性Focalspot焦点anodeangle阳极倾角heatcapacity热容量 Heatdissipation散热率II.3.1Focalspot焦点Theareaoftheanode ’stargetwherex-raysareemittedThesmallerthefocalspotthe bettertheresolutionoftheresultantimageDualFocusArrangements双焦点Mostdiagnostictubeshavetwofocalspots;large&small大焦点和小焦点Dual-focustubes双焦点largesmall大焦点:软组织或对比度分辨率的大容积扫描小焦点:薄层和高分辨率扫描Focalspot–penumbraeffect焦点与半影焦点尺寸、焦点到扫描物体距离~半影SharpimageBlurredimagePenumbraeffectFlyingspotsize飞焦点Philips:电场偏转Siemens:磁场偏转Flyingspotsize飞焦点控制电子束的位移,在很短的时间内在两个位置间移动发射X线,相当于多了一次采集或采集数量的加倍;采样增加、空间分辨力增加II.3.2Anodeangle阳极倾角ANODEANGLEBOMBARDINGELECTRONSANODEANODESHAFT有效焦点大小与靶面倾角effectivefocalspotsizevsanodeangleELECTRONSanodeFocalspotEFFECTIVEFOCALSPOTEYEcathodeII.3.3Heatcapacityandheatdissipation热容量和散热率(冷却速率)Heatunitishowmuchheatananodecanstorebeforedamageoccurs热容量表示阳极损坏之前的储热能力单位:HUkVp?mA?time?rectificationconstantHeatdissipationmeanshowfastatube’sanodecoolsdown散热率表示阳极冷却时间单位:HU/min |
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