英语语法
第一章 词类
英语中所有的词可分成十大类，每一类词在句子中都有其特定的位置和作用。这十大词类是：
一、 名 词（n.）：表示人或事物的名称的词。如：guy（人） suggestion（建议） 二、 形容词（adj.）：表示人或事物的特征的词。如：interesting（有趣的）red（红的）
三、 副 词（adv.）：修饰动词、形容词和副词的词。如：luckily（幸运地） happily（快乐地）
四、 代 词（pron.）：是代替名词的词。如：he（他） they（她们）
五、 数 词（num.）：表示数量和顺序的词，分为基数词和序数词。
六、 动 词（v.）：表示动作的词。
七、冠 词(art.)：与名词连用，说明人或事物的作用的词。
八、介 词(prep.)：通常置于名词和代词之前，表示名词和代词与其他词的关系。
九、连 词(conj. ）：连接词与词、短语与短语、句子与句子的词。
十、感叹词(interj.)：表示说话人感情或语气的词。句子成份
句子的组成部分，包括主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语、状语、表语七种。
主语
主语是句子叙述的主体，可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词和(主语)从句等来承担。
谓语
谓语说明主语所发出的动作或具有的特征和状态。谓语由动词来承担。
宾语
宾语是动作的对象或承受者，常位于及物动词或介词后面。宾语可由名词、代词、数词、名词化的形容词、不定式、动名词、(宾语)从句等来担任。
主语和谓语是英语句子的两大成分，除少数句子（如祈使句和感叹句等）外，一句话必须同时具有主语和谓语才能表达完整的意思。主语是针对谓语而言的，是一句话的主题，谓语用来说明主语的情况，为主语提供信息。在正常情况下，英语的主语和谓语的位置与汉语一致，也就是说主语在前，谓语紧跟其后。
定语
定语是用来修饰、限定、说明名词或代词的品质与特征的。形容词、名词、代词、数词、介词短语、动词不定式（短语）、分词、（定语）从句或相当于形容词的词、短语或句子都可以作定语。汉语中常用‘……的’表示。定语和中心语之间是修饰和被修饰、限制和被限制的关系。在汉语中，中心语与定语二者之间有的需要用结构助词“的”，有的不需要，有的可要可不要。“的”是定语的标志。
状语
英语中，修饰动词、形容词、副词等的句子成分叫状语（adverbial）。
状语的功用：状语说明地点、时间、原因、目的、结果、条件、方向、程度、方式和伴随状况等。状语一般由副词、介词短语、分词和分词短语、不定式或相当于副词的词或短语来担当。其位置一般放在句末，但也可放在句首或句中。副词是一种用来修饰动词、形容词、副词或全句的词，说明时间、地点、程度、方式等概念。
补语
英语补语的作用对象是主语和宾语，具有鲜明的定语性描写或限制性功能，在句法上是不可或缺的。补语是起补充说明作用的成份。最常见的是宾语补足语。名词、动名词、形容词、副词、不定式、现在分词、过去分词都可以在句子中作宾补。
表语
表语是用来说明主语的身份、性质、品性、特征和状态的，表语常由名词、形容词、副词、介词短语、不定式、动词的-ing、(表语)从句来充当，它常位于系动词（be, become, appear, seem, look, sound, feel, get, smell等词）之后。
时态the typhoon came.
过去将来进行时、 过去将来完成时；
一般将来完成进行时、过去将来完成进行时
各种时态的用法及构成：
1. 一般现在时 1）表示现在的习惯，经常发生的动作或存在的状态。2）表示主语的特征、性格和能力。3）表示客观事实或真理。2.一般过去时 1）表示过去的动作或状态。2）叙述过去连续发生的事情。3）表示过去一段时间内经常发生的动作。 3.一般将来时 1）表示将来的动作或状态。2）表示将来的经常动作。 am/are/is+going to+do 或will/shall+do 4.过去将来时表示对于过去某一时刻而言将要发生的动作或存在的状态。as / were going to+动词原形 that he was going to get married next month.
5.现在进行时 1）表示说话时正在进行的动作。2）表示现阶段正在进行的动作。
e + v-ing〔现在分词〕
6.过去进行时1）过去某一时刻或某一段时间内正在进行的动作。2）表示移动的动词：come, start, stay, leave, go等词的过去进行时可以表示过去的将来要发生的动作。.现在完成时1）表示刚刚完成的动作，常与just连用。2）表示过去发生而持续到现在的动作或状态3）表示过去的动作对现在造成的影响或结果。
have/has+过去分词
8.过去完成时1）表示在过去某一或动作之前已经完成的动作。2）表示由过去某一时间开始，一直延续到过去另一时间的动作had+过去分词.一般将来进行时
ill/ shall + be +现在分词
He will be working for us.=He will work for us.
.过去将来进行时
should(would)+be+现在分词
He said that he would be working for us.=He said that he would work for us.
11.一般将来完成时
ill / shall +have+过去分词 12.过去将来完成时
should / would have done sth.
He said that he would have worked for us.=He said that he would work for us.
13.现在完成进行时
have/has been +-ing
He has been working for us for ten years.
14.过去完成进行时
had been +-ing
I had been sleeping before you came.
15.将来完成进行时
主语+ shall/will have been doing
He will have been working for us.
16.过去将来完成进行时
hould + have been +现在分词
He said that he would have been working for us.
现在完成时与一般过去时的区别：1）现在完成时与现在有联系，它表示过去的动作对现在所产生的结果、影响。一般过去时通常表示在过去某一具体时间发生的动作，与现在没什么联系。2）现在完成时表示过去延续到现在的行为；一般过去时着重过去某一时刻的某一具体动作。 一般过去时和现在完成时的区别
1．一般过去时所表示的一个或一段过去时间是可以具体确定的，与其他时间没有牵连。它所表示的事情纯属过去与现在情况没有联系。现在完成时表示的事情发生在不能具体指出的现在以前的过去产某个或某段时间。它所表示的事情与现在情况有关系，是过去事情在现在产生的结果或对现在的影响。
2．一般过去时常用的状语有yesterday, last night, two days (months, weeks) ago, at that time 等；现在完成时常用的状语有already, just (刚刚), yet, never, before 等；表示从过去延续到现在并包括现在在内的一段时间状语有：today, now, lately, recently, in the last / past few days / years (在过去的这几天/年里)。since then, up to now, so far (至今)等。
3．比较下面几组句子，体会两种时态的不同：
He served in the army from 1952 to 1954. （这是过去的一件事）
He has served in the army for 5 years. （现在他仍在军中服役，他是个军人）
He wrote many plays when he was at college.
他上大学的时候，写了许多剧本。（写剧本是他过去的事）
He has written many plays.
他写了许多部剧本。（这意味着他是剧作家）
I saw Hero last year.
去年我看了《英雄》这部电影。（看《英雄》的时间是去年，与现在时间无关）
I have seen Hero before.
我以前看过《英雄》这部电影。（强调现在还知道这部电影的内容。以前看过，但“以前”是表示一个与现在有联系的过去时间，而不是一个确定的与现在无关的过去时间。）
一般过去时和过去完成时的用法区别
1．一般过去时是对现在说话时刻而言的，过去完成时则是对过去某一时刻而言。两种时态建立的时间参照点不同，对过去完成时来说，这一个时间参照点十分重要，它是过去完成概念赖以建立的基础，也是和一般过去时相区别的重要标准。
2．过去完成时的时间状语常用by 和before 引导的短语表示，如by that time, by the end of…, before 2000, by the time +句子等。
过去完成时与现在完成时的区别
1．两种时态都常与一段时间和状语连用，但现在完成时表示的是延续到现在或同现在有关的动作（句中不可有表示过去特定时间的状语），而过去完成时表示的是在过去某时之前已经完成或延续到过去某时的劝作（句中有表示过去特定时间的状语）。
2．比较下面的说法
She had been ill for a week before she came back.
她在回来之前就生病一个星期了。（回来发生在过去某一时间，发病发生在过去的过去）
She has been ill for a week.
她生病一个星期了。（现在仍在生病 时态的呼应：在复合句从句（主要是宾语从句）中的时态常受主句谓语动词的影响，这就叫做时态的呼应，时态的呼应一般有如下的情况 1、如果主句的谓语动词为现在时态，其从句中的谓语动词应该用什么时态就用什么时态，如：She knows you have been in Beijing for five rears. 2、如果主句中的谓语动词为过去时态，从句中的谓语动词就要用过去时态，但要注意到下列情况：1) 如果从句中的谓语动词所表示的动作与主句中的谓语动词所表示的动作同时发生，从句中须用一般过去时或过去进行时，如：She said she was busy then.(2) 如果从句中的谓语动词所表示的动作发生在主句谓语动词所表示的动作之前，从句中须用过去完成时，如：I didn''t know that she had been to London twice. (3) 如果从句中的谓语动词所表示的动作发生在主句谓语动词所表示的动作之后，从句须用过去将来时，如：They didn''t know when they would have a rest.(4) 如果从句中说明的是一种普遍真理现象，虽然主句的谓语动词为过去时态从句中仍要用一般现在时，如：When I was a little child, my father told me that the earth is round.(5) 如果从句中有表示具体过去时间的状语，虽然其谓语动词所表示的动作发生在主句谓语动词所表示的动作之前，从句仍用一般过去时，但如果该状语表示的时间不具体，则从句仍要用过去完成时，如：Tome said he was born in 1975. 第三部分 语态英语动词的语态有两种：主动语态和被动语态。主动语态表示主语是动作的执行者，被动语态表示主语是动作的承受者，在被动语态的句子中，动作的执行者，一般由介词by引起的短语来表示，如:We often help them. (主动) 我们常帮助他们。They are often helped by us.(被动) 他们常被我们帮助。 1、被动语态e+ 及物动词的过去分词.) + be + p.p.
have to do ---have to be done; used to do ---used to be done
2、在下列情况下，一般使用被动语态：1) 当不知道动作执行者是谁或没有必要提到动作执行者时，如：Paper was first made in China. 2) 当强调或突出动作承受者的作用时，如：The new machine was invented by a 20-year-old young worker. 动词时态的一些典型用法
1．在if, unless, even if 引导的条件状语从句中，在when, before, until (till), as soon as, the moment, once 引导的时间状语从句中，在no matter what /who / which / when / where / how 或whatever, whoever, whichever, whenever, wherever, however 引导的让步状语从句中，如果主句是将来时（往往出现will / shall / can / must ）或主句是祈使句，从句用一般现在时表示一般将来时。如：
I’ll go with you as soon as I finish my work.
② The new secretary is supposed to report to the manager as soon as she arrives.
③ — Can I join your club, Dad ?
— You can when you get a bit older.
④ If city noises are not kept from increasing, people will have to shout to be heard even at the dinner table 20 years from now.
⑤ Hundreds of jobs will be lost if the factory closes.
2．would 与used to
would 与used to 都可用来表示过去经常性或习惯性的动作，常常可以换用。如：
When we were boys we used to / would go swimming every summer.
小时候，每天夏天我们都要去游泳。
He used to . would spend every penny he earned on books.
过去他通常把挣来的钱全花在买书了。
would 之后要接表示动作的动词，不接表示认识或状态的动词，而used to 则无此限制。如：
I used to like football when I was at middle school.
He used to be nervous in the exam.
would 表示反复发生的动作。如果某一动作没有反复性，就不能用would, 只能用used to。如：
And from that day on, as soon as the table was cleared and the dishes were gone, Mother would disappear into he sewing room to practice.
从那天起，只要碗盘撤掉、饭桌清理干净，妈妈就马上躲进做针线活的房间练习起来。（具有反复性）
I used to live in Beijing. 我过去住在北京。（没有反复性）
used to 表示过去经常性或习惯性的动作或状态，现在已经结束（含有较强的“今非昔比”的意思），would 则只表示说话者对过去一种回想心情，有可能再发生。如：
People used to believe that the earth was flat.
过去，人们总以为地球是扁平的。（现在已不再这样认为）
He would go to the park as soon as he was free.
过去他一有空就去公园。（现在有可能再去）
3．be +动词不定式
表示按计划或安排要做的事。例如：
When are you to leave for two days to New York ?
你什么时候去纽约？
She is to get married next month. 她下个月结婚。
这种结构也可用于过去。was / were to do sth. 表示曾经计划要做某事，但不表明计划是否被执行，或表示“命运（即使中注定要发生的事）”，而非计划；was / were to have done sth. 表示未曾实现的计划。例如：
I felt excited because I was soon to leave home for the first time.
我感到很激动，因为我很快就要首次离开家了。
We were to have told you, but you were not in.
我们本来想告诉你的，但是你不在家。
表示“指令”，相当于should, ought to, must, have to。例如：
You are to report to the police. 你应该报警。
What is to be done ? 应该怎么办呢？
This medicine is to be taken three times a day. 这种药一天要服三次。
The books in this room are not to be taken outside. (The books in this room mustn’t be taken outside.) 这个室内的书籍不得带出室外。
表示“想，打算”，相当于intend, want。例如：
If we are to be there before ten, we’ll have to go now.
如果我们想在十点前到，我们现在就得走。
用于第一人称疑问句，表示征求对方意见。例如：
Am I to go on with the work ? 要我继续这项工作吗？
What are we to do next ? 我们下一步该怎么办？
在与be 连用的结构中，see, find, congratulate 的不定式被动式有特殊的用法。例如：
The news is to be found in the evening paper. 这条消息可以在晚报上见到。
He is nowhere to be seen. 在哪里也见不到他。
You are to be congratulated. 应当向您表示祝贺。
4．瞬间动词又叫非延续性动词，还叫终止性动词。瞬间动词可以有现在完成时态，但不可以接一段时间，若要接一段时间，须要做一些相应的变换。瞬间动词在完成时态中的否定式可以接一段时间。
× He has come to Beijing since last year.
√ He has lived in Beijing since last year.
× He has joined the army for 3 years.
√ He has served in the army for 3 years.
√ He joined the army 3 years ago.
√ He has been a soldier for 3 years.
√ It is 3 years since he joined the army.
√ He has joined the army. 他已参军了。
常见的瞬间动词有：come, go, get to / reach / arrive at, leave, buy, sell, open, close, get up, join /take part in, begin /start, return / give, borrow / lend, become / turn, bring /take, give, die, finish /end, receive /hear from, marry, break, lose, jump 等。
5．语境中的过去时，往往表示“刚才，刚刚”之意，暗示现在已“不再这样”。如：
— Come on in, Peter. I want to show you something.
— Oh, how nice of you ! I never thought you were going to bring me a gift.
② Your phone number again ? I didn’t quite catch it.
③ — Nancy is not coming tonight.
— But she promised !
6．表示愿望、打算一类的词，如：hope, expect, mean, intend, want, think, suppose, want 等，其过去完成时表示过去未增实现的愿望或意图。如：
I had hoped to see more of ShangHai.
我本希望在上海多看看。（但未能如愿）
I had meant to help you, but I was too busy at the moment.
我本想去帮你的，但当时确实太忙了。
I had thought you would come tomorrow.
我愿以来你明天才来呢。
7．某些固定句式中的动词时态是固定的、约定俗成的。
This / It is the first / second…time + that 从句。that 从句一般用现在完成时，如果把前边的is 改为was，则that 从句用过去完成时。如：
This is the first time I have come here.
It was the third time (that) he had made the same mistake.
It is / has been + 一段时间 + since 从句。since 从句中用过去完成时。如：
It was ten years since we had had such a wonderful time.
be about to do…when…意为“即将……（这时）突然……”。如：
I was about to go out when the telephone rang.
be (was /were) + doing… when… 意为“正在干……（这时）突然……”。如
They were reading when Tom shouted in pain.
Hardly had…done…when… ; No sooner had…done…than…
when 和than 从句里用一般过去时，表示“刚刚……就……”。如：
Hardly (No sooner) had I got home when (than) the rain poured down.
我刚到家大雨就倾盆而下。
It + be + 一段时间 + before 从句
这个句式分两种情况：如果主句用将来时，则从句用一般现在时表将来时，意为多长时间以后即将发生某事；如果主句用过去时，从句也用过去时，意为多长时间后发生了某事。如：
It won’t be long before he succeeds. ( = He will succeed soom.)
It was ten years before they met again. ( = They met again ten years later. )
8．高考对于进行体的常考点
一个长动作作为背景，被一个短动作打断，长动作往往用进行体，短动作用一般体。如：
My brother fell while he was riding his bicycle and hurt himself.
The students were writing busily when Miss Brown went to get a book she had left in the office.
Tom slipped into the house when no one was looking.
As she was reading the newspaper, Granny fell asleep.
The reporter said that the UFO was traveling east to west when he saw it.
② 表示动作的未完性、暂时性。如：
— Have you moved into the new house ?
— Not yet. The rooms are being painted.
I don’t really work here; I am just helping out until the new secretary arrives.
Shirley was writing a book about China last year but I don’t know whether she has finished it.
Selecting a mobile phone for a personal use is no easy task because technology is changing so rapidly.
③ 表示计划、安排要做的事。如：
I’ve won a holiday for two days to Florida. I am taking my mum.
— What were you doing when Tony phoned you ?
— I had just finished my work and was starting to take a shower.
表示现在或当时发展中的或正在进行的情况。如：
I don’t think Jim saw me; he was just starting into space.
I first met Lisa 3 years ago. She was working at a radio shop at the time.
— Is this raincoat yours ? — No, mine is hanging there behind the door.
— Hey, look where you are going ! — Oh, I’m terribly sorry, I wasn’t noticing.
主动形式表被动意义
1．系动词look, sound, feel, smell, taste, appear, seem, go, prove, turn, stay, become, fall, get, grow, keep + 形容词/名词构成系表结构。如：
The steel feels cold.
His plan proved (to be) practical.
It has gone bad.
2．表示开始、结束、运动的动词。如begin, finish, start, open, close, stop, end, shut, run, move 等。
Work began at 7 o’clock this morning.
The shop closes at 6 p.m. every day.
3．表示主语的某种属性特征的动词。如read, write, act, iron, cut draw, drive, sell, wash, clean, wear, open, cook, lock, shut, dry, eat, drink。这类动词一般不单独使用，常用一个修饰语。如：
This coat dries easily. 这种外衣容易干。
Nylon cleans easily. 尼龙容易洗干净。
The door won’t lock. 这门锁不上。
Food can keep fresh in a fridge. 食物在冰箱里能保鲜。
Your speech reads well. 你的演说讲得好。
This material has worn thin. 这个材料已经磨薄了。
His book does not sell. 他的书没有销路。
Your pen writes smoothly. 你的笔好写。
This lock won’t catch. 这锁锁不上。
The match won’t catch. 火柴擦不着。
The plan worked out wonderfully. 这计划制定得很好。
The recorder won’t play. 这录音机不转。
The engine won’t start. 引擎发动不起来。
This knife cuts well. 这把刀子很快。
The cloth washes well. 这布很耐洗。
4．少数动词用于进行时，其主动形式表示被动含义。如print, cook, fry, hang, build, make。 如：
The books are printing. 这本书正在排印中。
The neat is cooking. 肉在煮。
5．介词in, on, under 等+名词构成介词短语表被动意义
表示方位的介词与含动作意义的名词合用，含被动之义，其意义相当于该名词相应的被动形式，名词前一般不用冠词。
常见的有：under control (受控制)，under treatment (在治疗中)，under repair (在修理中)，under discussion (在讨论中)，under construction (在施工中)，beyond belief (令人难以置信)，beyond one’s reach (鞭长莫及)，beyond one’s control (无法控制)，beyond our hope (我们始料不及)，for sale (出售)，for rent (出租)，in print (在印刷中)，in sight (在视野范围内)，on sale (出售)，on show (展出)，on trial (受审)，out of control (控制不了)，out of sight (超出视线之外)，out of one’s reach (够不着)，out of fashion (不流行)。如：
The building is under construction (is being constructed).
The rumor is beyond belief ( = can’t be believed ).
His honest character is above all praise. ( = His honest character cannot be praised enough.)
That house is for sale. ( = That house is to be sold.)
The book is not yet in print ( = is not yet printed ).
Today some treasures are on show in the museum ( = are being showed).
The plane was out of control (can’t be controlled).
He took two days off within the teacher’s permission.
6．不能用于被动语态的及物动词或动词短语：
fit, have, wish, cost, agree with, arrive at / in, shake hands with, succeed in, suffer from, happen to, take part in, walk into, belong to 等。如：
This key just fits the lock.
Your story agrees with what had already been heard.
第四部分 虚拟语气
表示与事实相反的假设或将来不太可能实现的愿望。使用场合:用于if条件中:
与过去事实相反:
would / should / could / might + have done if…had done (从句的动词形式)
a. I would have passed the English exam if you had helped me.
b. If he had been sent to the hospital earlier, he might have survived.
2) 与现在事实相反:
would / should / could / might + v if…v-ed (从句的动词形式) (但be的过去式通常用were)
What would you do if you were me?
b. If he were a billionaire, he would donate all his money to the society.
3) 与将来事实相反:would / should / could / might + v if…were to + v 或 should + v
a. We would hold a party if you were to arrive tomorrow.
b. If it should snow tomorrow, we would cancel the meeting.
特别注意下面几种特殊情形:
（1）主句中的should通常用于第一人称，从句中的should各人称通用。The millions of calculations involved, had they been done by hand, ______ all by the time they were finished.(01.6/)
A. had lost B. would have lost
C. would lose D. should have lost
(2)在if引导的虚拟条件从句中可以把if省略，并将had, should或were提到句首如a. I would have passed the English exam if you had helped me. =I would have passed the English exam had you helped me.
b. What would you do if you were me?
= What would you do were you me?
c. We would hold a party if you were to arrive tomorrow.
=We would hold a party were you to arrive tomorrow.
(3)如果从句和主句中的时间不一致，则要分别使用相对应的动词形式。这种虚拟条件从句被称作“错综条件句”。If I hadn’t caught you when you fell from the ladder, you would not be smiling now.
b. If you had married me at that time, you would be happier now.
c. If I had studied English harder in high school, I would not be sitting here now.
英语中还可以用but for…（要不是…）和without…来表示虚拟条件But for your immediate help, I would have failed.=
Had you not helped me immediately, …
If you had not helped me immediately, …=
If it had not been for your immediate help, … =
Had it not been for your immediate help
b. But for air, there would not be life on the earth.=
If there were not air, … =
Were there not air, …=
If it were not for air, …=
Were it not for air, …
c. Without the child, the woman would commit suicide because her husband often beats her black and green. =
If it were not for the child, …=
Were it not for the child, …
2．用于名词性从句中---(should) do:
) 用于宾语从句中： + that sb (should) do sth
v.---advise, ask, command, desire, demand, direct, insist, move (提议), maintain, order, persist, propose, recommend, request, require, second (附议), suggest, urge, etc. 如:
My English teacher required that I (should) spend at least 3 hours on English every day.
That I (should) spend at least 3 hours on English every day was required by my English teacher.
= It was required that I (should) spend at least three hours on English every day by my English teacher.
2) 用于主语从句中：
（1）It is + (p.p + that sb (should) do sth
v---advise, ask, command, desire, demand, direct, insist, move（提议）, maintain (坚持认为；维修), order, persist（坚持）, propose, recommend, request, require, second（附议）, suggest, etc.
It was required by my English teacher that I (should) spend at least 3 hours on English.
(2) It is + adj + that sb (should) do sth
adj---advisable, critical（关键的）, desirable, essential（必不可少的）,indispensable（必要的）, necessary, vital（关键的）etc. 如:
It was necessary that I (should) spend at least 3 hours on English every day.
3) 用于表语从句中： + is + that sb (should) do sth
n---advice, command, desire, demand, direction, insistence, order, persistence, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, etc. 如:
My suggestion is that you (should) not get married before you have your own business.
4) 用于同位语从句中: … + that sb (should) do sth
n---advice, command, desire, demand, direction, insistence, order, persistence, proposal, recommendation, request, requirement, suggestion, etc
Do you accept my suggestion that you (should) not get married before you have your own business?
3.用于wish后的宾语从句中:1) 与过去事实相反---wish that sb + had + p.p.
a. I wish that I had been there.
b. He wishes that he had never got married.
2) 与现在事实相反---wish that sb + v-ed ( be---were )
a. I wish that I were a illionaire.
b. She wishes that she were at home with her parents now.
3) 与将来事实相反---wish that sb + should / would / might / could + v
a. I wish that I could fly to the moon some day.
b. He wishes that he would go to America for further study.
If only…..! “要是…就好了!”也是用来表示愿望的一个句型, 该句型后面从句中的动词形式和wish后面所接的从句中的动词形式完全一致。For example:
If only you had married me!
If only he were a teacher of English!
If only she would come to see me tomorrow!
4.用于would rather 后面所接的宾语从句中：
1）表示和过去事实相反---would rather that sb + had + p.p
He would rather that he had never been lazy in study in high school.
2）表示和现在或将来事实相反---would rather that sb + v-ed (be---were)
I would rather that he were not ill.
b. She would rather that her parents allowed her to work in Beijing after her graduation from Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
5.用于as if ( =as though) 后面所接的方式状语从句或表语从句中：该从句中的动词形式和wish后面所接的从句中的动词形式完全一致。
For example:
She behaves as if she had done all the job by herself.
You are talking as if you were my father.
She seems as if she would get married soon.
6.用于lest（以防）后面所接的目的状语从句中---lest + sb (should) do sth, 如:
We examined the engine carefully before we set off lest it (should) go wrong on the way.
7.用于It is time that…句型中---It is (high / about) time that sb + v-ed, 如:
It is time that he went home.
It is time that we started learning.
第五部分 倒装---全部倒装和部分倒装
全部倒装---就是把整个谓语部分提到主语的前面。
Here comes the bus.
以here, there, in, out, up, down等表示方位的副词开头并且主语是名词的句子要用全部倒装。又如:
There goes the man.
请对比：There he goes.
b. Down came the monkey from the tree.
还有的全部倒装是修辞的需要。In this book an article about the harm of smoking can be found. 也可以写成
In this book can be found an article about the harm of smoking.
部分倒装---就是把谓语中的助动词、情态动词或be动词提到主语的前面，而谓语的其他部分仍然放在主语之后。部分倒装都是语法需要。英语中要用部分倒装的情形如下：
1．以only + 状语开头的句子：
a. Only with you can I be really happy.
b. Only through much practice can we learn English well.
c. Only yesterday did I learn that my ex-girlfriend had got married.
2.以否定副词或具有否定意义的副词（短语）开头的句子：
a. Never have I learned Spanish.
b. Hardly can I use English to communicate with foreigners.
英语中的否定副词或具有否定意义的副词（短语）常见的有never, hardly…when…), little, seldom, scarcely (…when…), rarely, no sooner (…than…), neither, nor, not only…( but also…); under no circumstances（情形）, in no way, by no means, at no time, on no account, on no condition, in no case, on no occasions, etc
By no means will I give in to my boyfriend.
3.当so表示前一个肯定分句的谓语部分适用于另一个人（物）并且放在句首的时候：
a. I like English, so does he.
b. Mary can speak Japanese, so can my mother.
c. I went to America last autumn, so did my friend.
4. 当neither和nor表示前一个否定分句的谓语部分适用于另一个人（物）并且放在句首的时候：
a. I don''t like English, nor does he.
b. He hasn’t been to Shanghai, neither have I.
5.以not until时间状语开头的句子:
a. Not until yesterday did I learn that he had got married.
b. Not until he was 40 did he leave his parents for independent living.
6.以so + 形容词 / 副词或以so / such + 带有形容词修饰语的名词短语开头的句子:
a. So pretty is the girl that I often dream of her at night.
b. So fast does he speak that we cannot follow him.
c. So important a language is English that we must spend much time learning it.
d. Such an important language is English that we must spend much time learning it.
第六部分 非谓语动词
非谓语动词分为：不定式，动名词，分词。
非谓语动词的总体特点：就是不能作谓语，其他什么成分都能。
一. 不定式的用法
(一) 不定式的句法功能：
1.作主语
To?complete?the?design?before?National?Day is necessary.
现代英语中通常用it做形式主语。上句可以改为：
It''s?necessary?to?complete?the?design?before?National?Day.
Nice to see you.
To see you is nice---It is nice to see you.2.作宾语
I?want?to?go?at?once.
可以接不定式短语作宾语的动词有：
like?want?try?wish?begin?decide?ask?forget?promise?hope?love?offr?refuse，etc
宾语的动词不定式后面带有补足语的时候，一定要用it做形式宾语并把真正的宾语（即动词不定式）放到补足语之后。如：I find it a great pleasure to be with you.
c. I make it a rule never to get up early.
Early birds catch worms. (proverb)
3. 作补语（主补和宾补）
1) 作宾补
a. I?shall?have?to?ask?her?to?leave?the?company.
b. Please?let?me?stay?in?the?company.
c. I made her go at once.
She was made to go at once by me
英语中let后面必须接不带to的动词不定式短语做宾补，同类动词有： make, have, hear,?watch, notice,?feel,?see, etc
v + sb / sth + do sth---Sb / sth is + (v.) p.p + to do sth 2）作主补4.作定语
a. He?has?a?lot?of?questions?to?ask. 动宾关系
在此情形下，如果动词不定式是to + vi + prep的结构的时候可以将其改为prep + whom / which + to + vi的形式。如果动词不定式是to + vt + sth + prep的时候可以将其改为prep + whom / which + to + vt + sth的形式。The boy’s father bought him a large toy train_____.
A. to play with B. to play with it
C. which to play with D. at which to play
2. Everyone had an application form in his hand, but no one knew which office room_____.
A. to send it to B. to send it
C. to be sent to D. to have it sent
3. The professor could hardly find sufficient grounds_______ his arguments in favor of the new theory.
A. on which to base B. which to base on
C. to base on D. to be based on (From CET-4)
b. He is always the first person to get to school every day.主谓关系
c. The pressure to compete in modern society is almost unbearable.同位关系
5.作表语
The?purpose?of?the?trip?was?to?record?all?the?wildlife.
6.作状语
1) 结果状语
too…to…:
a. He is too young to go to school.
b. The box is too heavy for me to lift.
One is never too old to learn. = Live and learn. (proverb)
(2) enough…to…:
a. He is old enough to go to school.
b. I am strong enough to lift the box.
(3) so…as to…
Jiangyin is so nice as to attract many tourists every year.
(4) such …as to…
Jiangyin is such a nice city as to attract many tourists every year.
2) 目的状语
in?order?to…
a. In order to learn English well, I get up early every day.
b. He set off early in order to catch the bus.
(2) so?as?to…（不可以放在句首（二）动词不定式的各种形式(以do为例)：A. to do
B. to be done
a. Every one likes to be praised.
b. He asked to be given some money.
C. to have done
People say that he was killed.----
1) That he died is said by people. ---
It is said that he was killed (by people).
It is said that…
2) He is said to have been killed (by people).
Sb is said to do sth
不定式的完成式表示不定式的动作先于谓语动词的动作。
D. to have been done
He is said to have been killed by people.
E. to be doing
It seems to be raining outside.
F. to have been doing
The boy pretended to have been reading before I went in.
（三）动词不定式的逻辑主语：
通常是在不定式前面加for sb但在句型It is + adj. +逻辑主语 + to do中，用for sb还是of sb取决于adj.的性质。It is important for us to learn English.
It is stupid of you to marry her.
（四）动词不定式的否定形式--- not to do
充当独立结构的不定式，常做评价状语，常见的有：
to tell the truth, to be honest, so to speak, etc
only to do表示出乎意外的结果。如:
a.I went to see my girlfriend hopefully, only to be told that she had got married the day before.
b. I hurried to the station in a taxi, only to find that the train had already left.
二．动名词--- v-ing
（一）动名词的句法功能：
1. 主语:
a. Teaching English is my job.
b. Fishing is his hobby.
2. 宾语:
a. I like teaching English.
b. He enjoys fishing.
不能用不定式作宾语:
advise, allow, avoid, appreciate（欣赏，感激）, admit, bear, consider, confess (to) (坦白，承认), deny（否认）, delay, enjoy, escape, fancy（意想不到）, finish, forbid, imagine, involve（包括，涉及）, include, keep, mind, miss, practice, permit, postpone（推迟）, resist（抵制）, recall, risk, suggest, stop, stand, etc.
有些动词后面既可以接不定式也可以接动名词作宾语，但可以分为三种情形：意义相近；意义相同；意义不同
意义相近like, love, hate
意义相同begin, start, continue
意义不同forget, remember, regret, try, go on, mean
(1) forget/remember doing（忘记／记得已做过的事） forget/remember to do（忘记／记得要干的事） (2) regret doing（后悔干了某事） regret to do（be sorry to do）
(3) try doing（尝试做） try to do（设法做）
He tried calling her, but failed to get a reply.
(4) go on doing（继续干同一件事） go on to do（接着去干另一件事） (5) mean doing（意味着干…） mean to do（想干…）want, need, require, deserve后面接主动形式的动名词表示被动含义，并且可以用被动的不定式来代替主动形式的动名词。如：My hair needs cutting. = My hair needs to be cut.
The windows want cleaning. = The windows want to be cleaned.
worth--- Sth is worth doing
This party is worth remembering.
3.表语:
a. My job is teaching English.
b. His hobby is fishing.
4.定语:
a. He bought a new washing machine yesterday.
b. Have you got a sleeping bag? （）动名词的逻辑主语---在动名词的前面加形容词性物主代词来表示a. Your smoking makes me angry.
b. I am angry at Tom’s not being able to come to class on time.
如果带有逻辑主语的动名词不出现在句首的话，那么还可以用宾格人称代词来表示动名词的逻辑主语。I am angry at you smoking.
The father enjoys Mary playing the piano.
（）动名词的各种形式以（do）为例：
doing, being done,
having done,
having been done
a. I enjoy being praised.
b. After having finished the job, I went home.
c. He felt surprised at having received a call from his ex-girlfriend.
（四）动名词的否定形式 not + v-ing
a. He was angry at not being able to come to class on time.
b. He felt very surprised at not being invited to my birthday party.
三．分词的用法
一般来说，现在分词表示主动和进行意义；过去分词表示被动和完成意义（不及物动词的过去分词只表示完成意义）。
a crying child, a developing country,
a broken glass, a developed country
a falling leaf & a fallen leaf分词的句法功能：
1. 表语:
a. The situation at home and abroad is encouraging.
b. We are encouraged with the news that he has won the match.
2. 补足语:
a. I saw Mary crying.---
Mary was seen crying by me.
b. I saw Mary beaten.---
Mary was seen beaten by me.
3. 定语:
一般来说，单个的分词做定语放在被修饰的名词或代词之前；分词短语做定语一定要放在被修饰的名词或代词之后并且在意义上相当于一个定语从句。
a. The sleeping boy is called John.
b. The broken glass cost me 200 dollars.
c. The boy (who is) sleeping in my room is called John.
d. The glass (which was) broken by Tom cost me 200 dollars.don’t know the sleeping boy.
又如:
c. The cutting knife is not sharp.
d. The man cutting trees in the garden is his grandpa.
4. 状语:
通常表示时间，原因，条件，结果，方式。
a. Hearing the news, she cried.
b. Beaten by her boyfriend, she felt sad.
c. Given more time, I can do better.
d. She got home, finding that her house had been robbed.
e. The students went out of the classroom, talking and laughing.
分词短语做状语的时候，其逻辑主语必须和句子的主语保持一致。分词短语做状语的时候往往相当于一个状语从句。
a. Watching TV, I heard a loud knock on the door.
b. (If I am) Given more time, I will do it better.
c. (Because he was) Beaten by his father, the schoolboy ran away from home.
当分词的逻辑主语和句子的主语不一致的时候，必须在分词前面加上自己的逻辑主语。（象这种带有自己的逻辑主语的分词短语被称作分词的独立结构）。在分词的独立结构中, 还可以用with把分词的逻辑主语引出来。
a. The girl was standing in the rain, streaming down her cheeks. (wrong) --- The girl was standing in the rain, (with) tears streaming down her cheeks.
b. Killed in the car accident, the girl felt heartbroken. (wrong)---
(With) Her boyfriend killed in the car accident, the girl felt heartbroken.
c. (With) the temperature rising, more and more people go swimming.
（二）现在分词的各种(以do为例):
doing
having done
being done
having been done（只能做状语）
a. Having heard the news, she cried.
b. Being praised by the boss, she felt happy.
c. Having been praised by the boss, she felt happy.
(= Praised by the boss, she felt happy).
及物动词的现在分词的被动完成式做状语的时候可以用该及物动词的过去分词来代替，即having been done = done。
（三）分词的否定形式not + 分词
a. Not knowing what to do next to do, she turned to me for help.
b. Not given any money, the beggar went away.
当分词的动作和谓语动词动作同时发生或前后紧接着发生的时候，可以在分词前面加上一些连接词（when, while, if, unless, etc）:
a. While listening to music, I heard a knock on the window.
b. If asked about her new boyfriend, she becomes red.
Exercise:
a. ____ (finish) the job, I went home.
Finishing the job, I went home. = Having finished the job, I went home.
b. The job _____ (finish), I went home.
The job finished, I went home. = The job having been finished, I went home.
c. It ___ (be) a fine day, so we went out to play.
It ___ (be) a fine day, we went out to play.
关于there be…句型的非谓语动词形式---there being, there to be
a. Anne never dreams of______ for her to be sent abroad very soon.
A. there being a chance B. there to be a chance
C. there be a chance D. being a chance.
b. It is impossible for there to be a film in our university this evening.
c. There being nothing important, we left the meeting.
第七部分 强调句型It is / was … that…
The two young men robbed Mrs. Liang near the bank on April 18th.
1) It was the two young men that / who robbed Mrs. Liang near the bank on April 18th.
2) It was Mrs. Liang that / whom the two young men robbed near the bank on April 18th.
3) It was near the bank that the two young men robbed Mrs. Liang on April 18th.
4) It was on April 18th that the two young men robbed Mrs. Liang near the bank.
It is / was …___....
He didn’t leave his parents for independent living until he was 40.
It was not until he was 40 that he left his parents for independent living.
It was / is …____ …
It was at two o’clock in the morning ____ he came back.
It was two o’clock in the morning ____ he came back.
第八部分 反意 / 附加疑问句
1.What a day, ____? (isn’t it)
2.Let’s go, ____? (shall we)3.Let us go, ____? (will you)
4.Come in, _____? (will you)
5.Don''t come in, ____? (will you)
6.He demanded that we come at eight o’clock, ____? (didn''t he)
7.I don''t think that he is a teacher, ____? (is he)
8.He must have gone to bed, ____? (hasn''t he)
9.He must have gone to bed early yesterday evening, _____? (didn''t he)
10.He must be a student, _____? (isn’t he)
11.He is unhappy, ____? (isn’t he)
un-, dis-, il-, ir-, in-, a-, ab-, im-,
typical---atypical, normal---abnormal,
pneumonia
12.I am a student, ____? (aren’t I)
ain’t I
第九部分 情态动词
must have done 过去一定做过某事can’t have done 过去不可能做过某事
could have done 过去本来可以做而未做某事
couldn’t have done = can’t have done may have done 过去可能做过某事
might have done 过去或许做过某事
should have done 过去该做某事却没做；过去竟然做过某事have killed her own mother with her so-called boyfriend in the cotton field.
shouldn’t have done 过去不该做某事却做了
ought to have done = should have done 过去该做某事却没做
ought not to have done = should not have done过去该做某事却做needn’t have done 过去不必做某事却做了
主谓一致
1.就近原则 ---
not only…but also…
neither…nor…
either…or…
there be A and B
2.就远原则 ---
A as well as B…
My daughter as well as I likes English.3. “Many a + 单数名词”作主语的时候, 谓语动词用单数
Many a student likes English.
4.距离,金钱,价格,重量等作主语的时候作单数处理作主语的时候作数处理
第十一部分 从句一、名词性从句---主语从句, 宾语从句, 表语从句, 同位语从句1.都可以用连词that来引导(that在从句中不做成份。除宾语从句之外，that不可以省略):
That he got married is true.I know (that) he got married.
The news is that he got married.
I don''t believe the news that he got married.
2. 都可以用连词whether引导(whether在从句中不做成份并且不可以省略。从句必须使用陈述语序):Whether he got married is not clear.
I don’t know whether he got married.
My question is whether he got married.
Could you answer my question whether he got married?
在宾语从句中还可以用if来代替whether，如：
I don’t know whether he got married. = I don’t know if he got married.
但在以下情形的宾语从句中不可以用if来表示“是否”：
1) 该宾语从句作介词的宾语
a. I am interested in whether you really love me.
b. Our plan depends on whether it will rain tomorrow.
2) 宾语从句的句尾有or not
a. I don’t know whether he got married or not.
b. He didn’t tell me whether he is a student or not.
3.都可以用特殊疑问词来引导(特殊疑问词在从句中做成份并且不可以省略，从句必须使用陈述语序):
When he got married is not clear.
I don’t know when he got married.
My question is when he got married.
Could you answer mywhen he got married?
把下面的句子放在Can you tell me…?之后：
a. Does his father go to work by bus?b. When did Mr. Smith go to Tokyo?
c. How did he finish the job so soon?
d. Why can’t he do that?
e. Is his mother a doctor?
现代英语中通常不把主语从句放在句首，而是用it做形式主语。如：
a. That he got married is true.= It is true that he got married.b. Whether he got married is not clear.= It is not clear whether he got married.
c. When he got married is not clear.= It is not clear when he got married.
当宾语从句后面带有补足语的时候一定要用it做形式宾语并把真正的宾语（即宾语从句）放到补足语之后。如：
it important that you spend three hours on English every day.
b. I find it great pleasure that I work with you.
同一个动词后面接不止一个that引导的宾语从句的时候，第一个从句后面的that可以省略但后面的其他宾语从句中的that都不可以省略。如：
She told me you are a good girl and I had better marry you.
She told me you are a good girl and that I had better marry you.
特殊句型：
There are signs that…
There are signs that more and more colleges students cheat on exams.
There is evidence that…
There is no doubt that…
have (no ) idea + 从句
如：
I have no idea when you were born.
二、定语从句 / 关系从句 / 形容词性从句1．两个基本概念：1) 先行词---被定语从句所修饰的名词或代词。
2) 关系词---定语从句的引导词。关系词分为关系代词和关系副词。
2．关系词的用法：
1）关系代词的用法---who, whom, whose, which, that:
(1) who---当先行词指人并且从句中缺少主语的时候使用：
a. The boy who beat her yesterday is Tom.
b. I don’t like the girl who has several boyfriends.
(2) whom---当先行词指人并且从句中缺少宾语的时候使用：
a. The boy whom I beat yesterday is Tom.
b. I don’t like the girl whom you beat yesterday.
(3) whose---当先行词指人并且从句中缺少定语的时候使用：
a. The boy whose wallet was stolen yesterday is Tom.
b. I don’t like the girl whose boyfriend is ugly.(4) which---当先行词指物的时候使用并且which 在从句中既可以做主语又可以作宾语：
a. I lost the pen which cost me 200 dollars.
b. I lost the pen which my father gave me on my eighteenth birthday.(5) that---不管先行词指人还是指物的时候都可以使用并且that在从句中既可以做主语又可以作宾语：以上例句中的who, whom和which都可以换成that但在以下情况下通常只用that来引导定语从句
A.先行词前有形容词最高级修饰的时候
a. Mary is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.
b. The novel Gone with the Wind is the most interesting one that I have ever read.
B.当先行词既有人又有物的时候
The police haven’t found the little girl and the dog that got lost last weekend.
C.当先行词是everything, anything, something, nothing和all等不定代词的时候
a. She believes everything that her boyfriend says.
b. All that glitters is not gold. （闪光的并非都是金子）D. 先行词前有序数词only等修饰的时候
a. Is oxygen the only gas that helps fire burn?
b. The first lesson that I learned will never be forgotten.一般来说，在定语从句中作宾语的关系代词可以省略。但当关系代词作介词的宾语并且介词位于关系代词之前的时候则不可以省略关系代词并且该关系代词只能用whom (先行词指人)或which (先行词指物)。比如：
a. English is a language (that/which) I am interested in.=
English is a language in which I am interested.
b. Mary is the girl (that/whom) we were talking about. =
Mary is the girl about whom we were talking.
2)关系副词的用法---when, where, why:
(1) when---当先行词指时间并且从句中缺少状语的时候使用：
a. I will never forget the day when I got married.
b. Do you remember the time when we were in the countryside?
(2) where---当先行词指地点并且从句中缺少状语的时候使用：
a. The house we live is very old.
b. Do you know the small factory where we work?
(3) why---当先行词指原因并且从句中缺少状语的时候使用：
a. I don’t believe the reason why she is late.
b. The reason why she killed her own baby is not true.
关系副词相当于“介词+which”3.关系代词as引导的定语从句:
限制性定语从句和非限制性定语从句---
My brother who is a doctor has gone abroad. (限制性)
My father, who is a doctor，has gone abroad. (非限制性)
在非限制性定语从句中不可以使用that。如：
The Science Museum, which we visited two years ago, has now been pulled down for a supermarket.
此外，在非限制性定语从句中，做宾语的关系代词不可以省略。
1) as用于限制性定语从句中---
当先行词前有such修饰的时候用as，如：
a. She is not such a girl as you think.b. This is not such a good meal as they promised us.
c. There are as good fish in this area as came out of it.
2) as用于非限制性定语从句中---
在非限制性定语从句中, as用来指整个主句的内容。as在从句中可以做主语或宾语。
a. As we know, he is a doctor.
b. The earth is round, as is known to us all.he structure is very complicated, as (is) shown in the figure.
which也可以用于非限制性定语从句并指代整个主句的内容, which在从句中可以做主语或宾语。但which引导的这种从句只能放在主句之后，而as引导的这种从句既可以放在主句之后也可以放在主句之前，还可以放在主句间（指的是放在主句的主语和谓语动词之间）。
For example:
The earth is round, which we all know.
The earth is round, as we all know. =
As we all know, the earth is round.=
The earth, as we all know, is round.
此外，as引导的非限制性定语从句在意思上和主句是顺承关系。如：
He didn’t do the job on time, ___ we didn’t expect. (which)
29.The owner of the cinema needed to make a lot of improvements and employ more people to
keep it running, ____ meant spending tens of thousands of pounds. (06,29)
A. who B. that C. as D. which
当先行词是way并且定语从句中缺少状语的时候，该定从句可以用in which来引导；也可以用that来引导；还可以把in which或that省略。如：
I don’t like the way in which you talk to me. =
I don’t like the way that you talk to me. =
I don’t like the way you talk to me.…not…，用在否定结构后面。如:
There is no one but errs. = There is no one who does not err.
又如：
a. There is no rule but has exceptions. = There is no rule that does not have exceptions.
b. There is no one here but has applied for a scholarship. = There is no one here who has not applied for a scholarship.
c. There is no man but feels pity for the numerous tsunami victims.
but前的否定结构经常用省略形式，如：
a. No rule but has exceptions.
b. No one here but has applied for a scholarship.
5. 关系代词than引导的定语从句
Don’t drink more wine than is good to your health.
三、状语从句 / 副词性从句状语从句主要用来修饰主句或主句的谓语。一般可分为九大类，分别表示时间、地点、原因、目的、结果、条件、让步、比较和方式。
.时间状语从句when, as, while, before, after, since , till, until, not…until…,
the moment = the second = the minute = the instant = immediately = directly = instantly =
as soon as, no sooner … than… = hardly …when… = scarcely … when…,
every time (the first time, …), etc
a. The phone rang as soon as I got home. =
I had hardly got home when the phone rang. (主从句的顺序相反)
b. When he was leaving it started to rain.
He was leaving when it started to rain.
2.地点状语从句where a. Generally, air will be heavily polluted where there are factories.b. Where there’s a will, there’s a way.有志者事竟成。
3原因状语从句because, since, as, now that (= since), in that (= because) a. My friends dislike me because I’m handsome and successful. b. Now that everybody has come, let’s begin our conference.
4目的状语从so that, in order that, lest, in case, for fear that a. The boss asked the secretary to hurry up with the letters so that he could sign them. b. The teacher raised his voice in order that students in the back could hear more clearly.
so that不可以放在句首。
5.结果状语从句so … that…, so that, such … that…a. He got up so early that he caught the first bus. b. It’s such a good chance that we must not miss it. c. He is very ill-tempered so that he couldn’t find a girlfriend
even he was 40.
so + many / few / much / little (数量) + n (复数/不可数)
such + adj (除many, much, few, little) + n (复数/不可数)
so + adj + a/an + n (单数) = such + a/an + adj + n (单数)
___ little cats
6.条件状语从句if, unless, as/so long as, providing (that) = provided (that).
a. We’ll start our project if the president agrees. b. You will certainly succeed so long as you keep on trying. c. Provided (that) there is no opposition, we shall hold the meeting here. 7.让步状语从句though, although, even if, even though, while, as 在as引导的让步状语从句中一定要把作表语的名词、形容词以及做状语的副词提到句首。a. Much as I respect him, I can’t agree to his proposal. b. Young as he is, he can speak several foreign languages.
c. Child as she is, she knows how to reduce her parents’ burden.
在该句型中，动词也可置于句首。如:
a. Try as I might, I could not bring him round to the realization of his erroneous behavior.
b. I lost Cabrie; search as I would, I could find no sign of him.
(See [英语语法精粹] 420)
8.比较状语从句as…as…, not as…as…= not so…as…, than a. She is as bad-tempered as her mother. b. She is not as pretty as her mother. c. You can speak English better than I. 9方式状语从句as, as if = as though a. When in Rome, do as the Roman do.
b. She behaves as if she were the boss.
关于whoever, whichever, whatever, wherever, whomever, however，whenever的用法，以whoever为例：a. Whoever breaks the law must be punished.
b. Whoever he is, he must be punished if he breaks the law. = No matter who he is, he…
在名词性从句中,whoever不可以换成no matter who;但在让步状语从中可以换成no matter who。又如：
I like whatever you like.
Whatever I do, I do it for you.Wherever you go, I will go with you. = No matter where you go, I will go with you.
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