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来源10 Great Ancient Chinese Inventions
译者岛 It is well known that China has an ancient and glorious history, from the feudal periods ending in 222 BC through the three Imperial and Intermediate Eras, up to the Modern era – over 4000 years of dynastic reigns. It may also be well known that China is the source of many wonderful and useful inventions from spaghetti to gunpowder. This list, however, will take a slightly different slant of the topic: Chinese inventions and developments that were not known to or adopted by the Western (European) world for many decades and sometimes centuries after they were common place in China. Some you may be familiar with, others perhaps less so. 众所周知，中国有古老而光荣的历史，从公元前222年结束的战国时期，到封建帝国的分分合合，再到近代，有超过4000年的王朝统治。可能也为大家熟知的是，从面条到火药，中国有许多奇妙而实用的发明。但是这份清单将从一个稍稍不同的角度来发掘：长时间里不被西方所知或采用的中国发明或技术发展。有些在中国广为人知的技术要到数十年或数百年之后才传到西方。有些你可能比较熟悉，有些却不一定。 As this is not a ‘top 10’ type list, the entries are in a (mostly) chronological order of when they were invented or developed. Please note that these are inventions and technological developments and not discoveries about the natural world – though it is also true that in many cases the Chinese scientists far preceded ‘The West’ in discoveries as well (e.g. William Harvey is credited with discovering the circulation of blood in 1628. It was described in Chinese documents in the 2nd Century BC). 由于这是不是一个'十大最。。。'类型的列表，此清单（基本上）按照发明或开发的时间顺序。请注意，这些都是发明和技术的发展，而不是对自然世界的发现 - 尽管在对自然界的发现方面，古中国的科学家们也往往超前于西方（如威廉哈维在1628年描述了血液循环，被冠以发现头衔。而公元前2世纪的中国文件中就已出现了此描述）。 1
Row Planting 1.行种植 Feudal Period – 6 Century BC 战国时代 - 公元前6世纪
The Chinese started planting crops in rows sometime in the 6th century BC. This technique allows the crops to grow faster and stronger. It facilitates more efficient planting, watering, weeding and harvesting. There is also documentation that they realized that as the wind travels over rows of plants there is less damage. This obvious development was not instituted in the western world for another 2200 years. Master Lu wrote in the “Spring and Autumn Annals”: ‘If the crops are grown in rows they will mature rapidly because they will not interfere with each other’s growth. The horizontal rows must be well drawn, the vertical rows made with skill, for if the lines are straight the wind will pass gently through.’ This text was compiled around 240 BC.
中国人公元前6世纪开始将作物以行种植。这种技术可以让庄稼生长更快，更强壮。它有利于更有效的种植，灌溉，除草和收割。文献表明人们还意识到风刮过成行的植物时产生的损害较少。这个显著的发展在接下来的2200年里在西方世界没有得到实施。吕不韦在《吕氏春秋》中说：'如果作物以行种植，他们会成熟得快，因为它们不会相互干扰彼此的增长。水平行必须很好地画，垂直行也要熟练，因为如果线条笔直，那风将轻轻掠过。（按：'茎生有行，故速长；弱不相害，故速大。衡行必得，纵行必术。正其行，通其风，夬心中央，帅为泠风。“）这大约是公元前240年的文献。 2
Compass 2.指南针 Feudal period – 4th Cent BC 战国时代 - 公元前4世纪 The Chinese developed a lodestone compass to indicate direction sometime in the 4th century BC. These compasses were south pointing and were primarily used on land as divination tools and direct finders. Written in the 4th Century BC, in the Book of the Devil Valley Master it is written: “lodestone makes iron come or it attracts it”. The spoons were made from lodestone, while the plates were of bronze. Thermo-remanence needles were being produced for mariners by the year 1040, with common use recorded by 1119. Thermo-remanence technology, still in use today, was ‘discovered’ by William Gilbert in about 1600. 公元前4世纪，中国人造出了一个天然磁石罗盘来提示方向。这些罗盘指向南方，主要在陆地上使用，作为占卜工具和方向的寻找。公元前4世纪的《鬼谷子》里记载：“磁石..取针。”（罗盘的）勺子是天然磁石制成，而底盘由青铜制成。热剩磁针在1040年前就已经被制造出来，为海员们所用。到1119年这种技术已经很常见。而一直沿用至今的热剩磁技术，，是威廉·吉尔伯特在1600年所'发现'的。 3
The Seed Drill 3.播种机 Han Dynasty: circa 202 BC – 220 AD 汉：约公元前202年 - 公元220年 The Seed Drill is used to plant seeds into the soil at a uniform depth and covers it. Without this tool seeds are tossed by hand over the ground resulting in waste and inefficient, uneven growth. Chinese farmers were using seed drills as early as the 2nd Century BC. The first known European instance was a patent issued to Camillo Torello in 1566, but was not adopted by Europeans into general use until the mid 1800’s. 播种机将种子播种到统一的深度并将其覆盖。没有这个工具时种子用手播种，引起种子的浪费和低效及不均的生长情况。早在公元前2世纪中国农民就已经在使用播种机。在欧洲第一个这样的例子是在1566年向卡米洛·托列罗颁布的专利，但那还要等到十九世纪中期才成为欧洲人普遍使用的工具。 4 Iron Plows 4.铁犁 Han Dynasty: circa 202 BC – 220 AD 汉：约公元前202年 - 公元220年
One of the major developments of the ancient Chinese agriculture was the use of the iron moldboard plows. Though probably first developed in the 4th century BC and promoted by the central government, they were popular and common by the Han Dynasty. (So I am using the more conservative date). A major invention was the adjustable strut which, by altering the distance of the blade and the beam, could precisely set the depth of the plow. This technology was not instituted into England and Holland until the 17th century, sparking an abundance of food which some experts say was a necessary prerequisite for the industrial revolution. 对古代中国农业的主要发展之一是铁制推板犁耙的使用。虽然可能在公元前4世纪就已经出现并得到中央集权的推动，铁犁是在汉代才开始流行。 （因此这里采用的是较为保守的汉代）。其中一个重大的发明是可调节的支柱，通过改变刀板与横梁的距离，可以精确地设置犁的深度。这项技术直到17世纪才传到到英国和荷兰，一些专家认为此技术带来的粮食丰收是工业革命的必要前提条件。 Deep Drilling 5.深钻
汉：约公元前202年 - 公元220年
6 6.船舵 Ship’s Rudder Han Dynasty: circa 202 BC – 220 AD 汉：约公元前202年 - 公元220年 6  Chinese naval developments occurred far earlier than similar western technology. The first recorded use of rudder technology in the West was in 1180. Chinese pottery models of sophisticated slung axial rudders (enabling the rudder to be lifted in shallow waters) dating from the 1st century have been found. Early rudder technology (c 100 AD) also included the easier to use balanced rudder (where part of the blade was in front of the steering post), first adopted by England in 1843 – some 1700 years later. In another naval development, fenestrated rudders were common on Chinese ships by the 13th century which were not introduced to the west until 1901. Fenestration is the adding of holes to the rudder where it does not affect the steering, yet make the rudder easy to turn. This innovation finally enabled European torpedo boats to use their rudders while traveling at high speed (about 30 knots). 中国海军的发展出现远早于类似的西方技术。使用船舵技术的最早记录在西方是在1180年。公元一世纪制作的以精密吊轴舵（使舵在浅水中能被提起）为模型的中国陶器已经存在。早期舵技术（约公元100年）中还包括更易使用的平衡舵（部分舵叶在舵位之前），直到1843年才首先被英国采用 -- 差不多是1700年以后了。另一个海军技术，开孔舵，在13世纪时已普遍在中国船只上采用而直到1901年才被引入到西方。开孔舵叶上的开孔不影响方向但令船舵更易操作。后来这一创新使欧洲鱼雷艇可以在高速（约30海里）航行的情况下还得以使用船舵。 7 Harness for Horses 7.马的套具 Age of Division; circa 220 – 581 AD 三国及南北朝时期， 约公元220-581年 Picture 4-16
Throat harnesses have been used throughout the world to harness horses to carts and sleds. These harnesses press back on the neck of the horse thus limiting the full strength of the animal. In the late feudal period (4th Century BC) there is pictorial evidence (from the Chinese state of Chu) of a horse with a wooden chest yoke. By the late Han Dynasty the yoke was made from softer straps and was used throughout the country. By the 5Th century, the horse collar (pictured above), which allows the horse to push with its shoulders, was developed. This critical invention was introduced into Europe approximately by 970 and became widespread within 200 years. Because of the greater speed of horses over oxen, as well as greater endurance, agricultural output throughout Europe increased significantly. 咽喉马套在全世界都广泛用于驾驭马拉车和雪橇。这些马套从马项背压下，从而限制了马的全力。春秋战国晚期（公元前4世纪）有套有木制胸軋的马的画卷（楚国文物）。到了汉末的马套使用的是更软的带子，并在全国普遍使用。到了公元5世纪，马项圈（见图）出现了，这使得马可以用肩力拉车。这个重大发明大约在公元970年被引入欧洲，在之后200年内达到普及。由于马比牛速度快且耐力大，整个欧洲的农业产量得以显著增加。 8 8.瓷器 Porcelain Sui Dynasty: 581 – 618 AD 隋朝：公元581-618年 Picture 3-24 
Porcelain is a very specific kind of ceramic produced by the extreme temperatures of a kiln. The materials fuse and form a glass and mineral compound known for its strength, translucence and beauty. Invented during the Sui Dynasty (but possibly earlier) and perfected during the Tang Dynasty (618-906), most notably by Tao-Yue (c. 608 – c. 676), Chinese porcelain was highly prized throughout the world. The porcelain of Tao-Yue used a ‘white clay’ that was found on the edge of the Yangtze River, where he lived. By the time of the Sung Dynasty (960-1279) the art of porcelain had reached its peak. In 1708 the German Physicist Tschirnhausen invented European porcelain, thus ending the Chinese monopoly. The picture above is a teabowl with black glaze and leaf pattern from the Southern Sung Dynasty (1127-1279). 瓷器是一种非常特殊的陶品，由瓷窑所产生的极端温度打造。各种原料相互熔合，形成一种玻璃与矿物质的复合物，以其强度，透明度和美而闻名。该技术发明于隋朝（但可能更早），在唐代（618-906年）达到完善，其中以陶乐（608 - 676年）最为著名（注：景德镇陶窑），他选用他居住的长江边上的“白土”（注：高岭土）来烧瓷。中国当时瓷器在整个世界都享与盛誉。宋朝时（960-1279）瓷器艺术达到了顶峰。 1708年，德国物理学家欽豪申发明了欧洲瓷器，从而结束了中国在瓷器上的垄断。左图是南宋（1127-1279）黑釉叶纹茶碗。 9 9.卫生纸 Toilet Paper Sui Dynasty: 581 – 618 AD 隋朝：公元581-618年 9
As noted above, paper was an early invention of China. One of the first recorded accounts of using hygienic paper was during the Sui Dynasty in 589. In 851 an Arab traveler reported (with some amazement) that the Chinese used paper in place of water to cleanse themselves. By the late 1300’s, approximately 720,000 sheets per year was produced in packages of 1,000 to 10,000 sheets. In colonial times in America (late 1700’s) it was still common to use corn-cobs or leaves. Commercial toilet paper was not introduced until the 1857 and at least one early advertiser noted that their product was ‘splinter free’ – something quite far from today’s ‘ultra-soft’. One rather odd piece of trivia I picked up during my research is that the Romans used a sponge tied to the end of a stick – which may have been the origin of the expression “to grab the wrong end of the stick”. 下面会提到，纸是一项中国的早期发明。最早使用卫生纸的记录出现在隋朝589年。公元851年，一位阿拉伯旅行者（有些吃惊地）报道说中国人用纸而非水来做清洁。到14世纪后期，中国每年生产近72万张纸，每包1千到1万张。而即使在殖民时期的美国（18世纪后期），玉米穗或树叶仍是主要洁身工具。直到1857年，商业卫生纸才开始出现。至少一则早期广告提到他们的产品“没有木刺”---和现在广告里的“超级柔软”可不是一回事。我在研究卫生纸时发现的一件好玩的事儿是罗马人使用末端绑着海绵的棍子如厕，这可能是英语成语“把棍子拿反了”的出处。
10.活字印刷术 Printing – movable type 宋朝： 公元960 - 1279年 Song Dynasty: 960 – 1279 AD Picture 2-60
That paper was invented by the Chinese is well known (by Cai Lun c 50-121 AD), and it is one of the great Chinese inventions. The recipe for this paper still exists and can be followed by today’s artisans. In 868 the first printed book, using full page woodcuts, was produced. About 100 years later the innovations of Bi Sheng, pictured above, (990-1051) were described. Using clay fired characters he made re-usable type and developed typesetting techniques. Though used successfully to produce books, his technology was not perfected until 1298. By contrast, Gutenberg’s bibles – the first European book printed with movable type – were printed in the 1450’s. Interestingly, the Chinese did not start using metal type until the 1490’s. 众所周知，纸是中国四大发明之一（蔡伦，约公元前50-121年）。当时的造纸配方现在还在，当今的工匠都可以依此按部就班。公元868年，第一本使用全页木刻印刷的书问世。约100年后，毕升（990-1051年）的发明见诸记载，如图。他用火烤泥字，发明了活字印刷，并发展了排版技术。毕升活字印刷出书成功，但他的技术直到1298年才得以完善。相比之下，欧洲第一本活字印刷品---《谷登堡版圣经》是在15世纪50年代印刷的。有趣的是，中国直到15世纪90年代才开始使用金属活字印刷术。 |
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