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1.Foreignizing translation （异化） is a type oftranslation proposed by Ventui in which a target text is produced whichdeliberately breaks target convention by retaining something of the foreignnessof the original. Venuti traces the roots of the term back to Schleiermacher'sfamous notion of the translation which leaves the author in peace, as much aspossible, and moves the reader towards him. 2. Domesticating translation （归化） is a type oftranslation proposed by Ventui in which a transparent fluent style is adopted inorder to minimize the strangeness of the source text for target languagereaders. Venuti traces the roots of the term back to Schleiermacher's famousnotion of the translation which leaves the reader in peace, as much aspossible, and moves the author towards him. 3. Langue refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by a speech community. Parole refers to the concrete utterancesof a speaker. 4. Competence is the unconscious knowledgeof the system of grammatical rules in a language. Performance is the languageactually used by people in speaking or writing. 5. Sense is the relationship between oneword and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another. Itis concerned with the intralinguistic relations. For example, the English wordsbachelor and married have the sense relationship of bachelor=never married. 6. Reference is the relationship between aword and the thing it refers to, or more generally between a linguistic unitand a nonlinguistic entity it refers to in the real word. For example, therelationship between the word tree and the objet tree in the real world. 7. Phonetics is a branch of linguisticswhich refers to the study of speech sounds, especially of their production,transmission, and reception. It is the general study of the characteristics ofspeech sounds. 8. Phonology is a branch of linguisticswhich refers to the study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in alanguage. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds areorganized in languages, and also toexplain the variations that occur. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds thathuman voice is capable of creating. Phonology is the study of a subset of thosesounds that constitute language and meaning. The former focuses on chaos whilethe latter focuses on order. Therefore these two are at once related anddistinct branches of linguistics. 9.Inflectional morphology studies the wayin which words vary in order to express grammatical contrasts insentences, such as single/plural, past tense/present tense, bark+s=barks. 10. Derivational morphology studies theprinciples governing the construction of new words, without reference to thegrammatical role a word might play in a sentence. 11. Informative function: language is usedto tell something, to give information, or to reason something out. Forexample, the function of the sentece Wwater boils at 100 degree centigrade isinformative. 12. Interpersonal function: language isused to establish and maintain social relations between people. For example,the way in which people address others and refer to themselves, such as'dear sir, your obedient servant, indicate the various grades ofinterpersonal relations. 13. Performative function: language is usedto do things or to perform acts. For example, at a meeting, as soon as thechairman says I declare the meeting open, the meeting has started. 14. Phatic function: language is used toestablish an atmosphere or maintain social contact between the speaker andhearer. For example, the expression such as how do you do does not conveyanymeaning, but are used to establish a common sentiment between the speakerand hearer. 15. Emotive function: language is used toexpress the speaker's attitudes and feelings. For example, my god! 16. Recreational function: language is usedfor te sheer joy. For example, a chanting. 17. Conceptual meaning is the basicessential components of meaning which is conveyed by the lteral use of a word.For example, the basic concepts of a word like needle in english might includethin sharp, steel, instrument, which would be part of the conceptual meaning ofthe word needle. 18. Associative meaning is te total of allthe meanings a person thinks of when he hear the word. For example, you mayhave associations attached to a word like needle which lead you to think ofpainful whenever you encounter the word. 19. Constituent command refers to therelation between an element and another of the same level and under the samenode in a tree diagram, and any others under the latter element as well. Forexample, in the prepositional phrase in the book, the preposition inconstituent command the following noun phrase the book, and the constituentcommand book not in. 20. Speech variety refers to anydistinguishable form of a language used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Itis considered a more neutral term than the terms such as standard language anddialect. 21. The behaviorist view of languageacquisition: language acqusition is a process of habit formation. Language islearned through stimulus and reinforcement. Reinforcement of selected responsesis the key to understand language development. Children learn to producecorrect sentences because they are positively reinforced when they saysomething right and negatively reinforced when they say something wrong. 22. The nativist view of languageacquisition: language acqusition is a specific property of human beings.Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language. They arepredisposed to develop their native language along a universal predeterminedroute through similar stages. They go about acquiring the grammar of theirnative language using principles unique to language acquisition. 23. Euphemism refers to the use of a wordwhich is thought to be less offensive or unpleasant than another word. Forexample, indisposed instead of sick, or pass away instead of die. 24. Taboo refers to a word or expressionthat is prohibited by the polite society from general use. For example, cunt,prick, fuck, for vagina, penis, sexual intercourse. 25.Lingua franca refers to a language thatis used for communication between different groups of people, each speaking adifferent language. For example, english is an international lingua franca usedin numerous social and political situations where a common language is asked for. 26. Variationist linguistics refers to atheoretic framework advanced by william labov to study how language variationand change take place in different social contexts or geographic districtsunder the influence of social factors such as economics,education, class,gender, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically quantitative, butqualitative instruments have recently been introduced in this branch oflinguistic research for a better description and explanation of the datacollected. 27. Critical period is a period in oneslife extending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain ismost ready to acquire a particular language naturally and effortlessly. It is aperiod that coincides with the period of brain lateralization for languagefunctions. 28. Critical period hypothesis is thetheory which states that in child development there is a period in ones lifeextending from about age two to puberty, during which the human brain is most readyto acquire a particular language naturally and effortlessly. There are twoversions of the critical period hypothesis. While the strong one suggests thatchildren must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never beable to learn from subsequent exposure, the weak holds that language learningwill be more different and incomplete after puberty. These two views can findsome support respectively in victors and genies cases. 29. Translationese refers to targetlanguage usage which because of its obvious reliance on features of sourcelanguage is perceived as unnatural, impenetrable, or even comical. It istypically caused by an excessively literal approach to the translation processor an imperfect knowledge of target language, and is reflected in theperception that the source language of a translation seems reluctant to makeits exit, and it prefers to seek reincarnation in the target language. 30. Interlanguageis the type of language produced by foreign or second language learners who arein the process of learning a language. It is the approximate language systemthat a second language learner constructs which represents his or hertransitional competence in the target language. 31. Over translation is the translationthat gives more detail than the original. 32. Under translation is the translationthat gives less detail and is more general than the original. 33. Transcription is a type of interlingualtransfer in which the forms of the original are preserved unchanaged in targettext. 34. Transliteration is a process in whichsource language graphological units are replaced by target languagegraphological units. 35. Source culture-linked overttranslation: semantic translation 36. Source culture-linked coverttranslation: communicative translation 37. Back translation is a process in whicha text which has been translated into a target language is retranslated intosource language. 38. Back translation test is a process inwhich a text which has been translated into a target language is retranslatedinto source language, for purposes of comparison and correction. 39. Neologism is a new word or expressionwhich has come into a language. For example, user-friendly. 40. Eponym is a word derived from names ofpeople or places. For example, bycott. 41. Buhlers classification of languagefunction: representative, expressive, and appelative. 42. Jackobsons classification of languagefunction: referential, poetic, emotive, conative, phatic, and metalingual. 43. Hallidays classification of languagefunction: ideational, interpersonal, and textual. 44. Newmarks classification of languagefunction: expressive, informative, vocative, esthetic, phatic, and metalingual. 45. Linguistic sexism refers to the sexbiased phenomena in any language use. It aims to reveal and deal withlinguistic issues related to male chauvinism. 46. Women register refers to the hypothesiswhich assumes that the following features are prevailing in womens linguisticbehaviour: 1)women use more tag questions, 2)women use less powerful cursewords, 3)women use more intensifiers such as terrible and awful, 4)women usemore fancy colour terms such as mauve and beige, 5)women use more statementquestions like “Dinner willbe ready at seven?” with a rising intonation at the end, 6)womens linguistic hehaviouris more indirect and more polite than mens. 47. Regional dialect is a variety of alanguage used by people in the same geographical region. For example, guangdongdialect in china. 48. Ethnic dialect is a variety of alanguage which cuts across regional differences and is mainly spoken by a lessprivileged people that has experienced some form of social isolation such asracial discrimination or segregation. For example, black english in america. 49. Signified refers to the conceptualconcept of a linguistic sign. 50. Signifier refers to the materialrepresentation of a linguistic sign takes the form of sounds or characters. 51. C-command: constitute command 52. M-command: maximal command 53. Discourse is a general term forexamples of language use. It is the language which has been produced as theresult of an act of communication. Grammar refers to the rules a language usesto form grammatical units such as clause, phrase, and sentences, whilediscourse refers to the larger units of language such as paragraphs,conversations, and interviews. Sometimes the study of both spoken and writtendiscourse is knowen as discourse analysis, some researchers, however, usediscourse analysis to refer to the study of spoken discourse and text linguisticsto refer to the study of written discourse. 54. Text is a piece of spoken and writtenlanguage. A text may be considered from the point of view of its structure orits functions, e.g warning, instructuring, carrying out a transaction. A fullunderstanding of a text is often impossible without reference to the context inwhich it occurs. A text may consist of just one word, e.g danger on a warning sign, or it may be ofconsiderablelength, e.g a novel, a sermon, or a debate. 55. Deixis is a term for a word or phrasewhich directly relates an utterance to a time, place, or person. Examples ofdeictic expressions in English are 1). Here and there which refer to a place in relation to the speaker;2). I which refers to the speaker or writter, you which refers to the person or persons addressed, he/she/they whichrefer to some other person or persons. 56. Linguistics is the scientific study oflanguage. It tries to answer the basic questions what is language and how doeslanguage work. Linguistics studies not any particular language but language ingeneral. It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematicinvestigation of linguistic data. No serious linguistic conclusion is reacheduntil the linguist has done the following three things: observing the waylanguage is actually used, formulating some hypotheses about languagestructure, and testing these hypotheses repeatedly against linguistic facts tofully prove their validity. In linguistics, as in any other discipline, dataand theory stand in a dialectical complementation: data without being explainedby some theory remain a muddle mass og things, and theory without the supportof data can hardly claim validity. 57. Triphthongrefers to a combination of three vowels. For example, in English, // as in fireis a triphthong. 58. Vowel glide refers to a vowel that involves achange of quality throughout the articulation, including diphthongs, when asingle movement of the tongue is made, and triphthongs, when a double movementis made. Diphthongal glide in English can be found in words like way //, andtoe //, and triphthongal glide can be found in words like wire //, and tower//. 59. Chomsky defines language as a set ofrules. Chomsky belives that the aim of linguists is to produce a generative grammarwhich captures the tacit knowledge of the native speaker of his language.Chomsky and his followers are interested in any data that can reveal the nativespeaker’s tacitknowledge. Chomsky’s methodology is hypothesis deductive, which operates at two levels:the linguist formulates a hypothesis about language structure, which is testedby grammars for particular languages, and each such grammar is a hypothesis onthe general linguistic theory. Chomsky follows rationalism in philosophy andmentalism in psychology. Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis is the starting point of transformationalgenerative grammar, which is based on his observations that some importantfacts can never be otherwise explained adequately. 60. Chomsky’s transformational generative grammar has undergone five stages ofdevelopment. The classical theory aims to make linguistics a science. Thestandard theory deals with how semantics should be studied in a linguistictheory. The extended standard theory focuses discussion on language universaland universal grammar. The revised standard theory focuses discussion ongovernment and binding. The minimalist programme is a further revision of theprevious theory. The development of transformational generative grammar is aprocess of constantly minimalizing theories and controlling generative powers.Although transformational generative grammar has involved proposing, revising,and cancelling of many rules, hypotheses, mechancisms, and models, its purposeis to explore the nature, origin and the uses of human knowledge on language. 61. Assimilation is a process in which onesound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighbouring sound. If a following sound is influencing a precedingsound, it is called regressive assilimation. If a preceding sound isinfluencing a following sound, it is called progressive assilimation. 62. Coarticulation is the simultaneous oroverlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. If the soundbecomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamb, it is calledanticipatory coarticulation. If the sound becomes more like the precedingsound, as in the case of map, it iscalled perseverative coarticulation. 63. Affix refers to the meaningful formthat is attached to another form to make a more complex word. It can beclassified into three subtypes: prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on theirposition with reference to the root or stem of the word. For example, prefixmini- suffix -tion infix foot feet goose geese 64. Category refers to a group of itemswhich fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language, such ascase, person, aspect, and tense. Some linguists also related groups of wordssuch as nouns, verbs, and adjectives as catagories, but these groups are usuallyreferred to in traditional grammar as parts of speech. 65. Stress is the degree of force used inproducing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and istherefore more prominent, it is a stressed syllable. 66. Intonation is the occurence ofrecurring fall rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relativelyconsistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varinglength. 67. Representive refers to the speech act which states what the speakerbelives to be true. For example, I have never seen the man before. The earth is a globe. 68. Directive refers to the speech act which tries to get the hearer to dosomething. For example, Your money or your life! Open the window! 69. Commissive is the speech act committing the speaker himself to somefurther action. For example, I promise to come. I will bring you the book tomorrow withoutfail. 70. Expressive is the speech act expressing feelings or attitude towards anexisting state. For example, I’m sorry for the mess I havemade. It’s really kind of you to have thought of me. 71. Phonetics is a branch of linguisticswhich refers to the study of speech sounds, especially of their production,transmission, and reception. Phonology is a branch of linguistics which refers tothe study of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. Bothphonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Butwhile both are related to the study of sounds, they differ in their approachand focus. Phonetics is of a general nature. It is interested in all the speechsounds used in all human languages: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified,and so on. Phonology focuses on the system of sounds of a particular language.It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how thesesounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. For example, thearticulation of the sond t in the two words tea and too differ from each other.Phonetics is concerned with how these two sounds differ in the way they arepronounced while phonology is interested in the patterning of such sounds andthe rules that underlie such variations. 72. First language acquisition is the learning of a native language. Secondlanguage acquisition is the learning of a foreign language. The studies onfirst language acquisition have influenced enormously those on second languagelanguage acquisition at both theoretical and practical levels. The new findingsand advances in first language acquisition, especially in learning theories andlearning process, are illuminating in understanding second languageacquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first languageacquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of secondlanguage acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language studyhas served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts aboutsecond language learning. Second language acquisition, however, is differentfrom first language acquisition, and the second language learners generallyfail to attain native like competence in all aspects of a second language,particularlly in phonology. The language they produce, which is called interlanguage,tends to become fossilized at certain level, and fossilization has become oneof the features of interlanguage. One key issue in second language acquisitionresearch therefore concerns the extent to which second language acquisition andfirst language acquisition are similar or different. Second languageacquisition researchers are also interested in the causes of the difficultiesthat adult learners encounter and the methods that may be used to facilitatethe acquisition process of a second language. 73. Formal equivalence is one of two different types of equivalencesproposed by Nida which focuses attention on the message itself, in both formand content. It is the quality of a translation in which the features of theform of the source text have been mechanically reproduced in the receptorlanguage. 74. Dynamic equivalence is one of two different types of equivalencesproposed by Nida which characterizes a translation in which the message of theoriginal text has been so transported into the receptor language that theresponse of the receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors. 75. Primary translation is one of two modesof translation proposed byDellier and Kornelius which establishes a communication between source languagewriter and target language reader. 76. Secondary translation is one of two modesof translation proposed byDellier and Kornelius which informs the target lange reader of a communicationbetween source language writer and reader and includes the translation ofliterary and scientific texts. 77. Overt translation is one of two contrasting modes of translationproposed by House in which the target adressees are quite overtly, not beingdirectly adressed. The production of the overt translation is generally amatter of relatively straightforward linguistic recoding, usually with nonecessity to carry out any subtle cultural realignment.Sermons, politicalspeeches, and much artistic literature are all examples of text types for whichovert translation is held to be appropriate. 78. Covert translation is one of two contrasting modes of translationproposed by House which is to produce a target text which is as immediately andoriginally relevant as it is for the source language addressees. The productionof the covert translation can therefore be viewed as an attempt to conceal thetranslation nature of a target text by producing a text which is functionallyequivalent to source text. Advertising, journalistic, and technical materialare all examples of text types for which covert translation is held to beappropriate. TOT： tip-of-the tongue SOT: slip-of-the-tongue
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