【原】消防课题：住宅消防安全创新项目

摘要

住宅火灾损失占美国火灾总损失的主要原因，占2855人死亡人数的83％，78％或16500人受伤，以及估计的125亿美元财产损失中的58％（Karter，MJ，美国的火灾损失） 2012年，国家消防协会，昆西，昆西，2013年9月）。该项目的重点是通过以下方式减少这些损失：

1）新的消防安全产品的创新，

2）更好地利用现有的消防安全产品，

3）开发更有效的规范和标准的知识，

以及4）提高公众对改进安全信息的认识。

描述

目标 -  通过对先进的家用火警和烹饪火灾减少进行有针对性的研究，以及开发一种评估新的消防技术对居住生命安全的影响的系统，以减少住宅火灾死亡和伤害。

什么是新的技术理念？ 

新的技术理念是通过相互关联的研究来实现住宅防火安全，将创新产品推向市场，实现更有效的规范和标准变更，同时提高公众对新住宅防火信息的认识。

大多数火灾死亡和伤害发生在家庭火灾中。

住宅防火安全功能及其运营状态

因家庭而异，

取决于建筑物的年龄，

当地建筑规范，

执法水平以及居住者（房东/租房者，业主）的知识和承诺。

开发和评估减少住宅火灾损失的技术通常需要新的测量科学能力来实现先进技术。

标准的变化可能非常缓慢，采用甚至更慢。

同时，组织需要越来越多的研究和数据来证明技术规范和标准的变化从历史上看，研究所的研究已经影响了家具易燃性，RIP卷烟，住宅洒水装置以及烟雾报警代码和标准。公众意识对于实施和维护消防安全功能至关重要。家庭防火信息传播活动需要从无偏见的研究中获得真实的信息，以提供准确和相关的建议。

该项目将通过开发更灵敏/更早检测烟雾和火警的技术，评估减少厨房火灾发生的技术（家庭火灾的主要原因），减少住宅火灾损失，通过感测早期降解产物来早期检测点火源（例如，电和烹饪）可以显着影响由这些点火源引起的火灾损失和死亡。火焰检测可以提供一种“万无一失”的方式，用于在无人看管的烹饪的最早时刻区分烹饪活动与真实的火灾危险。除了传感技术的进步之外，需要理解的关键关系是人类与住宅火灾探测系统提供的信息的相互作用（例如明显的滋扰警报 - 忽视或禁用，唤醒沉睡的个体失败，容忍“学习”高级警报的阶段等。）

例如，一个智能火警系统，知道什么时候开启烹饪用具，什么时候，并且居住者所处的位置以及紧邻的位置可以用于通知乘员与没有该信息的火警系统有很大不同。在这项研究中，对老年居民的特别关注可能是至关重要的，因为美国人口日益老龄化，他们对警报的了解和响应的能力明显不同。这项研究可以为包括老年人在消防法中的反应奠定基础。

什么是研究计划？  该项目分为三个相互关联的研究子主题，其产出将用于展示先进的家庭火灾报警概念和烹饪危害降低策略，并开发一种方法来量化不同技术可以做出的家庭防火安全的相对改进。

副标题 1

将继续开发测量科学，以区分烟雾和有害气溶胶，并测试先进的检测算法。我们继续利用烟雾浊度计，气溶胶旋光仪（SNAP）以及一氧化碳和二氧化碳气体浓度，开发广泛的烟雾和滋扰源特征数据集，包括粒度分布和浓度，以及光散射特性。实验将在火灾模拟器/探测器评估器（FE / DE），火灾报警测试室或NFRL中的全尺寸房间进行。我们已将气体种类测量扩展至HCN，并发布现有数据，用于高级警报开发，包括火警测试室中的滋扰源，以及ANSI / UL 217-2015中规定的新防火测试的全尺寸数据。

副标题2

正在开发和演示减少烹饪火灾危害的技术，并支持烹饪消防安全技术的标准制定。在手稿中记录了使用烟雾测量来提醒提前点火烹饪条件的探索性研究的结果和结论。对火灾探测室进行了修改，以进行烹饪火灾实验，以评估干预/抑制技术的能力。我们正在评估传感和自动断电对各种炉灶和平底锅结构配置的有效性。我们积极参与灶具防火安全的标准制定。将使用有前途的当前技术进行实验，

副标题3

侧重于住宅环境中的乘员响应和出口行为，并开发了一个概念系统，用于评估新的消防技术对住宅生活安全的影响。此前该子主题总结了建筑物居住者安全项目的研究成果。

我们调查了有关住宅居民反应和出口行为的现有数据，以确定研究差距，并评估是否需要其他数据，包括已知影响居住者火灾反应和老年居民出口行为的问题，并编写了一份记录文献调查的手稿，研究差距和数据需求。

正在开发一种方法，用于评估产品变化的影响（更难点燃，火灾蔓延速度更慢，HRR更低，副产品毒性更低，检测更好，抑制更好等），因为各种级别的家庭消防安全基础设施（即数量） ，烟雾报警器，CO警报器，洒水喷头等的位置和类型）和乘员特征。

它将包括统计分布，其中包括社区各方面的估计不确定性，包括：住房存量（房间数量，总面积和布局，烟雾报警覆盖范围和洒水空间），针对不同人群的各种响应和出口行动（例如，警报唤醒效果已被证明是年龄，出口速度和火灾情景的函数。设想计算机火灾模型CFAST的多次运行（大约106次）使用从各种分布的采样中抽取的输入文件将形成用于估计建筑物火灾危险的概率方法的基础。开发准确表示结果的性能指标很容易解释，并且允许用户设置性能标准至关重要。

英文原文：

Summary

Residential fire losses substantially dominate the total fire losses in the U.S. accounting for 83% of the 2855 deaths, 78% or the 16500 injuries, and 58% of the estimated $ 12.5 billion in property loss (Karter, M.J., Fire Losses in the United States in 2012, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, September 2013). This project focuses on reducing these losses through 1) innovation in new fire safety products, 2) better use of existing fire safety products, 3) knowledge to enable development of more effective codes and standards, and 4) promoting public awareness of improved safety information.

DESCRIPTION

Objective - To enable a reduction in residential fire deaths and injuries by conducting targeted research on advanced household fire alarms and cooking fire hazard reduction, and developing a system for evaluating the impact of new fire protection technology on residential life safety.

What is the new technical idea? The new technical idea is to approach residential fire safety through interrelated research to bring innovative products to market, enable more effective codes and standards changes and promote public awareness of new residential fire safety information simultaneously. Most fire deaths and injuries occur in household fires. Residential fire safety features and their operational state vary from household to household and depend on a building’s age, local building codes, level of enforcement, and the knowledge and commitment of occupants (landlord/renter, owner occupant). Developing and evaluating technologies to reduce residential fire losses typically requires new measurement science capabilities to enable advanced technologies. Codes and standards can be very slow to change, and even slower to adopt. In the meantime, organization are requiring increasingly more research and data to justify changes to technical codes and standards Historically, NIST research has impacted furniture flammability, RIP cigarettes, residential sprinklers, and smoke alarm codes and standards. Public awareness is crucial to implementing and maintaining fire safety features. Household fire safety messaging campaigns need bona fide information derived from un-biased research to provide accurate and relevant advice. This project will reduce residential fire loss by developing the technologies for more sensitive/earlier detecting smoke and fire alarms, evaluating technologies to reduce the occurrence of kitchen fires (leading cause of household fires), and developing a system for evaluating the impact of new fire protection technology on residential life safety which can be used to guide household fire codes.

Early detection of ignition sources (e.g., electrical and cooking) via sensing of early degradation products could significantly impact the fire losses and deaths attributed to these ignition sources. Flame detection may provide a “fool proof” way to discriminate cooking activities from real fire hazards at the earliest possible moment for unattended cooking. Beyond advances in sensing technologies, a key relationship that needs to be understood is the interaction of humans to information presented by residential fire detection systems (e.g. obvious nuisance alarm – ignore or disable, failure to awaken a sleeping individual, tolerance of a “learning” phase of an advanced alarm, etc.) For instance, an intelligent fire alarm system that knows when cooking appliances are turned on, what time it is, and where occupants are located and where located in the immediate past may be used to inform occupants much differently than a fire alarm system that does not have this information. Special attention to elder residents may be critical in this research as the population in the U.S. is increasingly aging and their ability to be aware of and respond to an alarm is significantly different. This research could lay the foundation for including the response of the elderly in the fire codes.

What is the research plan?  This project is separated into three interrelated research subtopics whose outputs will be used to demonstrate advanced household fire alarm concepts and cooking hazard reduction strategies, and to develop a method to quantify the relative improvements in household fire safety that different technologies can make.

Subtopic 1 will continue to develop the measurement science to discriminate smoke and nuisance aerosols and test advanced detection algorithms. We continue to develop an extensive data set of smoke and nuisance source characteristics including particle size distributions and concentrations, and light scattering properties using the smoke nephelometer, aerosol polarimeter (SNAP), along with carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide gas concentrations. Experiments will be conducted in the fire emulator / detector evaluator (FE/DE), the fire alarm test room or a full-scale room in the NFRL. We have expanded the gas species measurements to include HCN and are publishing the existing data for advanced alarm development including nuisance sources in the fire alarm test room, and full-scale data from the new fire tests specified in ANSI/UL 217-2015. We will continue to support the development of standard nuisance source test methods by building and testing new equipment and nuisance source surrogates to replace current full-scale cooking nuisance source test with an equivalent small scale test.

Subtopic 2 is developing and demonstrating techniques to reduce cooking fire hazards, and supporting standards development for cooking fire safety technologies. The results and conclusions of the exploratory research on using smoke measurements to alert to pre-ignition cooking conditions have been documented in a manuscript. The fire detection room was modified to conduct cooking fire experiments to assess the ability of intervention/suppression technology. We are assessing the effectiveness of sensing and automatic power cutoff to a variety of stovetop and pan construction configurations . We are actively participating in standards development for cooktop fire safety. Experiments will be conducted using promising current technologies, and promising sensing technologies from the advanced household fire alarm task to demonstrate potential risk reduction strategies for kitchen fires.

Subtopic 3 is focused on aspects of occupant response and egress behaviors in residential settings and developing a conceptual system for evaluating the impact of new fire protection technology on residential life safety. Previously this subtopic concluded the research outputs of the Safety of Building Occupants project.

We have surveyed available data on residential occupant response and egress behavior to identify research gaps, and assess the need for additional data including issues that are known to affect occupant fire response and egress behavior of older residents and a manuscript was prepared documenting the literature survey, research gaps and data needs.

A methodology is being developed to assess the impacts of a product change (harder to ignite, slower fire spread, lower HRR, less toxic byproducts, better detection, better suppression, etc.) given various levels of household fire safety infrastructure (i.e., number, location and type of smoke alarms, CO alarms, sprinklers, etc.) and occupant characteristics. It will include statistical distributions with estimated uncertainties for various aspects of a community including: housing stock (number of rooms, total area and layouts, smoke alarm coverage and sprinklered spaces), various response and egress actions for different segments of the population (for instance, the alarm waking effectiveness has been shown to be a function of age, as has egress speed) and fire scenarios. It is envisioned the multiple runs (on the order of 106) of the computer fire model CFAST using input files drawn from sampling of the various distributions would form the basis of a probabilistic methodology for estimating building fire hazard. Developing performance measures that represent the results accurately, are easily interpreted, and allow the user to set performance standards is critical.

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