英语语法总结

名词和主谓一致
一、 名词的分类
    英语中名词主要可以分为可数名词和不可数名词。
1．可数名词
    可数名词一般都有单复数。单数时，名词前可加不定冠词a/an；复数时，前面可加数词，名词本身要改成复数形式。
    可数名词的复数有规则和不规则两种变化。规则的名词，只要在单数名词之后加“s”，“es”或去“y”加“ies”就行，如：an umbrella, twelve umbrellas；a factory, three factories。不规则的名词变化则要靠积累记忆，如：a mouse, ten mice；a policeman, six policemen。
    有少数可数名词，如sheep，works（工厂），Chinese等，它们的单复数同形：a sheep, four sheep；a chemical works, five chemical works。
    此外，还有一些可数名词只有复数形式，如clothes，trousers，cattle，police，people(人，人民)等。
    英语名词中还有一些合成词，它们的复数形式有三种可能：1）后面的部分变成复数形式：grown-ups，boy students，grandchildren。2）前面的部分变成复数形式：passers-by，lookers-on，sons-in-law。3）前、后都变成复数形式：men doctors，women drivers。
2．不可数名词
    不可数名词没有单复数的变化，前面也不能加a/an，或数词。但是我们可以用量词来表示不可数名词的数量，单复数表现在量词上，如：a piece of paper；two pieces of paper。
    在有些情况下，不可数名词也可用a/an，表“一种”、“某种”的意思，如have a wonderful time，receive a good education，be made into a fine paper。
    有时为了表示量大，不可数名词的后面也可加“s”，如sands，ashes，waters等。
    但是我们在学习不可数名词的时候，特别要记住英语中有一些名词，它们无论在什么情况下，前面都不能用a/an，后面也不可加“s”，如weather，information，等。
3．有的名词既可是可数名词，也可是不可数名词
    英语中有相当一部分的名词，既可以是可数，也可以是不可数，它们的意义有时略有不同，有时则完全不同。如：difficulty, success, time, work，paper，glass，等。
4．用于表示可数与不可数名词的数量“多”“少”的常用词和词组
    跟可数名词连用的如：few, a few, many。
    跟不可数名词连用的如：little, a little, much。
    可数与不可数都能用的是：a lot of , plenty of。

二、主谓一致
1．通常被看作单数的主语部分
1）不定式、动名词和主语从句。
  eg.. To see is to believe.
     Seeing is believing.
     What he said was different from what he did.
2）表示“时间”“距离”“金钱数量”的名词。
  eg. Twenty years is quite a long time.
    10 kilometers doesn’t seem to be a long distance to Mira.
    300 dollars is too much for this old coin.
3）数学式子。
  eg. Two plus five is seven.
4）书报杂志、国家、单位的名字。
  eg. The Times is published daily.
     The United States is a big country.
5）前面用a kind of, a sort of或this kind of, this sort of等词组的名词。
  eg. This kind of tree(s) often grows well in warm weather.
6）代词either, neither作主语。
  eg. Either of the plans is good.
     Neither of them was carrying a weapon.
7）many a/ more than one 加单数名词，或one out of加复数名词作主语。
  eg. Many a young man has tried and failed.
     More than one employee has been dismissed.
    One out of ten thousand computers was infected with the virus.
2．通常被看作复数的主语部分
1）一些只有复数的名词如clothes, trousers, police等。
  eg. These trousers are dirty.
但要注意比较：A new pair of trousers is what you need。
2）代词both作主语。
  eg. Both of them have received high education.
3．需要进行分析才能确定的主语部分
1）代词all, some,作主语。
  所代的名词是可数名词，就看作复数；是不可数名词，就看作单数。
  eg. All is ready. (= Everything is ready.)
     All are present. (= All the people/students... are present.)
2）a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some, any, 20% of, half of...等词组作主语。
  所修饰的名词是可数名词，就看作复数；是不可数名词，就看作单数。
  eg. 70% of the surface of the earth is covered with water.
     90% of the graduates from the high school go to university.
3）关系代词who, which, that作主语。
  由先行词决定单、复数。
  eg. The student who is talking with the principal is Tom.
     The students who have chosen physics will have a test tomorrow.
  但要注意one of ...与only one of...所修饰的先行词。
  eg. He is one of the students in our class who have been to Beijing.
     He is the only one of the students who has been to London.
4）一些表示集体意义的名词如family, team, class等。
  当这些名词强调的是一个整体时，看作单数；当它们强调的是这个集体中的成员时，看作复数。
  eg. Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.
     My family are all early risers.
4．出现在句首，用连词或介词连接的两个名词或词组
1）用both...and...连接的两个名词看作复数。
  Both Kate and Jean are football players.
2）用or, either...or..., neither...nor..., not only...but also...连接的两个名词，由靠近动词的名词决定单复数。
  Either you or I am to go.
  Not only the students but also the teacher has to observe the rules.
3）用as well as, (together) with, like, besides, but, except等连接的两个名词，由第一个名词决定单复数。
  eg. His eyebrows as well as his hair are now white.
     No one but these two peasants has been there.
实际上这些都是介词短语提前，不是并列的主语。
4）用and连接的两个名词有几种情况：
  a)看作复数。
    eg. Tom and Mary are primary pupils.
  b) 在有every ... and every ..., each ... and each ... 的时候；或用and连接的两个名词表示的是一件东西或一个人时，看作单数。
  eg. Every boy and every girl in our country has the right to go to school.
    Bread and butter is what he eats for breakfast every day.


动词的时态与语态
一、动词的时态
  英语的动词可以有十六种变化，但现在常用的是十二种，其中有九种是高中学生必须掌握的，还有三种只要理解。现以动词do为例，十二种时态的形式列表如下：
    一般    进行    完成    完成进行
现在    do/does    is/am/are doing    have/has done    have/has been doing
过去    did    was/were doing    had done    *had been doing
将来    shall/will do    *shall/will be doing    *shall/will have done    
过去将来    would do            
（打星号的为理解项目）

1．一般现在时态
 A)意义：现阶段经常反复发生的动作或现在的状态。
  eg. He gets up at six every morning.
     There is a big tree in the back yard.
 B)常用的时间状语：always, often, usually, sometimes, seldom, never, every day, once a week,等。
 C)表示一种真理、自然规律等，在间接引语中也仍然用一般现在时态。
  eg. The scientist explained that the earth goes round the sun, but no one believed him then.
 D)在时间、条件等状语从句中，代替将来时。
  eg. If he is not busy, he will come to the party tomorrow.
 E)注意第三人称单数时，动词后面要加“s”。
2． 一般过去时态
 A)意义：过去的动作或状态。注意，即使是刚刚发生的事情，时间非常短，也要用过去时态。如：Why! It’s you—Mary! I didn’t know you were here!
 B)常用的时间状语：yesterday, last week, 3 years ago, just now, 等。
 C)动词过去式的规则变化（加ed）和不规则变化。
3．一般将来时态
A)意义：将来要发生的动作或状态。
B)常用的时间状语：tomorrow, next moth, in two weeks, 等。
C)除了用shall/will之外的将来表达法：
 a) is/am/are going to do，意为“打算、准备、马上就要”。
  eg. It’s going to rain.
 b) is/am/are to do，意为“（计划好/安排好）要......”
  eg. The new underground railway is to be opened to traffic next year.
 c)is/am/are about to do，意为“马上就要”。
  eg. Hurry up! The plane is about to take off.
 d) 某些动词（主要是一些表示位置移动的动词）可用一般现在时态或现在进行时态表示将来的动作。
  eg. The train leaves for Beijing at 8:30 this evening.
     He is going to London next week.
4．现在进行时态
A)意义：表示在说话的同时或最近一个阶段正在发生的动作。
 B)常用的时间状语：now, these days, at present, at the moment, 等。
 C)有时可以和always, constantly, forever等时间状语连用，表示说话人的某中特殊的感情。
    eg. He is always thinking of others.
       Mrs Smith is constantly quarrelling with her neighbours.
 D)有些瞬间动词可以用进行时态表示“马上就要......”
   eg. The old man is dying.
 E)英语中有些表示状态、感觉、心理活动的动词没有进行时态，如know, understand, believe, like, love, see, hear, seem, 等等。
5．过去进行时态
 A)意义：表示过去某个时刻正在做的动作。
 B)常用的时间状语：this time yesterday, at 9:00 last night, 等。
 C)有些动词（主要是一些表示位置移动等的动词和瞬间动词）的过去进行时态可以表示过去将来的意义。
    eg. I was told that she was leaving for Australia the next morning.
*6．将来进行时态
A)意义：表示将来某个时刻正在发生的动作。
 B)常用的时间状语：this time tomorrow, at 9:00 next Sunday morning, 等。
   eg. What will you be doing at 9:00 on June 7next year?
7．现在完成时态
A)意义：a. 表示过去某个时刻开始，一直持续到现在的动作或状态。（只有部分延续性动词，如live, work, study, 等可以表示这一意义）
           eg. I have lived in Shanghai since I was born.
               He has been married for half a year.
        b. 表示过去做过的某一个动作对现在的影响。
           eg. I have seen this film. It’s fantastic!
              Jack is playing video games, because he has done his homework.
 B)常用的时间状语：a. since 1990, for 9 years,等。
                   b. already, yet, just, now, this week, never, ever, so far, up till now, lately, in the past/last few years, 等。
 C)b组所表示的现在完成时态与过去时态的区别：虽然现在完成时态b组表示的动作也是发生在过去，但它强调的是与现在的关系，而过去时态只表示过去发生的动作，叙述一个事实。试比较：
  eg. 1) He went to Beijing two days ago.
       He has gone to Beijing.
     2) Henry lost his mobile phone yesterday, but found it later.
       Henry has lost his mobile phone again.
D)瞬间动词要表示“一直到现在”，不能直接用“完成时态加for”的方式，必须用其他句型。
  eg. 他离开上海已经三天了。
      He has left Shanghai. He left three days ago.
      He has been away from Shanghai for three days.
      It is three days since he left Shanghai.
8．过去完成时态
A)意义：表示过去某个时刻之前所做的动作，即“过去的过去”。所以一般要用过去完成时态的话，句子中或上下文一定有一个过去时态的动作或时间状语做比较，才能用。
  eg. He had learned English before he went to Canada.
 B)常用的时间状语：by the end of last year 等。
 C)在用间接引语时，主句的动词是过去时态，用来替换直接引语中的过去时态或现在完成时态。
  eg. He asked the girl, “Where have you been?”
→ He asked the girl where she had been.
     He said, “I cleaned the classroom yesterday.”
→ He said that he had cleaned the room the day before.
 D)有些动词（如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等）的过去完成时态可表示过去事实上没有实现的希望、计划等。
  eg. I had hoped to attend the party, but I was too busy.
*9．将来完成时态
 A)意义：表示在将来某个时刻之前将会完成的动作。
 B)常用的时间状语：by the end of next year等。
   eg. You will have studied English for 10 years by the time you finish high school.
10．现在完成进行时态
 A)意义：表示一个动作从过去开始，一直持续到现在。（同现在完成时态的第一种意义）
 B)常用时间状语：since ..., for ..., so far, up till now 等。
 C)现在完成进行时态与现在完成时态的比较：
   只有现在完成时态的第一种意义的那些动词，它们的现在完成与现在完成进行两种时态表示的意义相同，可以互换使用。
   eg. I have studied here for 3 years.  = I have been studying here for 3 years.
   而其他的一些动词，使用两种时态，意义就各不相同了。
   试比较： The little boy has read the text.（小男孩已经读过课文了。）
            The little boy has been reading the text.（小男孩一直在读课文。）
   试翻译：1）从上午九点开始我就一直在做功课。
               I have been doing my homework since 9 in the morning.
           2）今天的功课我已经做好了。
               I have done today’s homework.
*11．过去完成进行时态
意义：表示从过去某一时间开始的动作一直持续了一段时间再结束。（结束的时间点也在过去）
  eg. He had been searching for the watch for a half hour when we came back.
12．过去将来时态
 意义：表示从过去某一时间看将要发生的动作或状态，一般多用在间接引语中。
  eg. He told me that he would read the book a second time.
二、动词的语态
  英语中的动词可分为及物动词和不及物动词，以及系动词。及物动词有主动语态和被动语态；不及物动词或动词词组（如happen, belong to, take place等）和系动词（如become, seem, sound, look, taste,等）没有被动语态。
1．以动词do为例，被动语态的各种时态的表达方式如下表：
    一般    进行    完成
现在    is/am/are done    is/am/are being done    have/has been done
过去    was/were done    was/were being done    had been done
将来    shall/will be done        shall/will be done
过去将来    would be done        
  各种时态在助动词be上表示，动作由过去分词体现。
2．注意在动词词组变被动的时候，原来词组中的介词或副词不要漏掉。
  eg. The villagers took good care of the wounded soldier.
     → The soldier was taken good care of by the villagers.
3．有些动词既是及物动词，又是不及物动词，这些动词比较少用被动语态。
  eg. We begin our class at 8:00 every morning. → ? Our class is begun ... ?
     Our class begins at 8:00 every morning.
4．有少数动词或动词词组可用主动形式，表示（从中文里我们所感觉的）被动意义。
  eg. The book sells poorly.
     His translation reads better than yours.
     Who is to blame for the accident?



情态动词
一、can, may, must
    根据意思与习惯用法，我们可以把can, may, must分成以下两组用法，方便学习与掌握。
1．第一组用法见下表（主要在初中的时候我们所掌握的）：
    词义    肯定    否定    疑问    过去式
can    能、会    can    can’t    Can...?    could
may    可以    may    mustn’t/may not    May...?    might
must    必须    must    needn’t    Must...?    must/had to
A) can
 a) can的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：
eg. Computers can do a lot of things for us.
     Money cannot buy everything.
Can you speak French?
I could run very fast when I was young.
 b) can与be able to
can与be able to的意思相近，经常可以互换使用，但是be able to除了有一般现在与过去时态之外，还有将来、完成等时态，所以要表示将来能够或已经能够做什么事，就要用be able to。
  eg. You will be able to communicate with foreigners fluently if you finish the course.
     The baby has been able to one or two simple sentences.
    在用过去式的时候，could与was able to的意思不同，could表示的是“当时能够做某事”的意思，而was/were able to表示的是“当时能够，并且成功地做到了”的意思。
    试比较：
    Einstein was able to flee Germany when Hitler came into power.
    I could pass the examination, but I was too careless.
 c) could在疑问句时用意表示请求，意义同can，是一种比较客气的表达方式。
  eg. Could you give me a hand?
B) may
a) may的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：
  eg. You may choose anyone here you like.
     —May I leave now?      —Yes, of course/Sure. Go ahead.
                            —No, you mustn’t. （注：口语中也能用cannot。）
I was told that the boss might come to the office before 9
b)mustn’t与may not.
    mustn’t一般是说话人表示“不可以”或“禁止”，而may not一般是指按规定“不允许”的意思。试比较：
     You mustn’t leave the bike here.
     The sign on the wall reads, “Visitors may not feed the animals in the zoo.”
  c) may可放在句首，表示“祝愿”。
   eg. May our friendship last forever.
d) might有时用在疑问句中，只是一种比may更客气一点，而非过去式。
   eg. Might I have a few words with you, sir?
C) must
  a) must的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句：
   eg. Everyone must obey the rules.
      —Must I finish the work today?  —Yes, you must.
                                  —No, you needn’t/don’t have to.
      He told me he must/had to see a doctor tomorrow morning.
  b) must与have to
    用must更强调主观上“必须”，而have to 更强调客观上的“不得不”。
    在间接引语中，主句动词是过去式时，用had to多，但must也可以用。
    have to有现在、过去和将来三种时态。
  c) must有时可以表示“偏偏”“非...不可”的意思。
   eg. Why must you make such a mess when the visitors are coming?

2．第二组用法见下表：
    词义    肯定    否定    疑问    过去式    进行式
can    可能/一定    /    cannot    Can...?    can’t have done    can’t be doing
may    可能    may    may not    /    may have dong    may be doing
must    一定    must    /    /    must have done    must be doing
a) can, may, must的第二种用法，是用来表示说话人的一种推测。其中may与must的区别其实是说话人对可能性大小所做判断的区别，觉得可能性大，就用must，可能性小，就用may。而can与may, must是肯定、否定、疑问分工的不同。
  现在时举例：
—Can Tom be in the classroom?
     —Yes, he must be there.
     或—Yes, he may be there, but I’m not quite sure.
     或—No, he can’t be there, because he hasn’t come to school today.
  过去时举例：
    I must have been asleep. I didn’t hear your footsteps.
    David became angry at the meeting. He may have misunderstood what I meant.
    James can’t have forgotten the examination yesterday. There must have been something wrong with him, I believe.
 b)表示可能性的否定句中有时也可用may，但意思与cannot有所不同。may not一般解释为“可能不”，而cannot解释为“不可能”
 c)表示可能性，也可以用might和could，但并非may和can的过去式，而是表示说话人觉得可能性实在是比较小了，有虚拟的意味。跟may与can一样，might用在肯定句，could用在否定句和疑问句。might do的过去式是might have done，could的过去式是could have done。
  eg. —Could it be Susan at the door?  —Yes, it might be her.（现在口语中也可用could be回答）
 *d) could have done也可以用在肯定句里，表示过去有这种可能，但事实上没有发生（虚拟语气的用法）。
  eg. It was dangerous to do so. You could have killed yourself!
二、shall, will, would
1．用在一般疑问句中，表示征求对方的意见。第一、第三人称用shall，第二人称用will或would。
  eg. Shall turn on the TV?
     Shall my brother go with us?
     Will/Would you do me a favour?
2．shall与第二、第三人称连用，用在肯定、否定句中，表示“命令、允诺、警告、威胁，及说话人的意愿和决心”。
  eg. You shall do it at once!
     He shall have the money when he finish his work on time.
     You shall fail if you don’t work hard.
     If Shylock breaks the law, everything he has shall be taken away from him.
3．will在陈述句中可用于任何人称，表示“意愿、意志、决心”等。有时也可用在条件句中。
  eg. I will help you at any time if necessary.
     The captain will land you safe in Liverpool, if you will be man.
4．will和would可以表示习惯性反复发生的动作，或在某一条件下，一定回发生的动作。这时，will一般指“现在”，would一般指“过去”。
  eg. Oil will float on water, because it is lighter.
    He would take a walk after supper when he lived here.
  上面例句中的would可以用used to来替换。used to也表示“过去常常”，但used to还隐含了“现在不再这样了”的意思。而would则没有这种意思。
  eg. He used to smoke, but he has given it up now.
三、should/ought to
1．可以表示一种必要性、义务，解为“应当、应该”。可以与任何人称连用，并用在肯定、否定、疑问句中。但疑问句时用should更多一些。
   eg. You should/ought to pay more attention to your spelling.
2．可以表示一种推测，解为“应该是”。用于任何人称的肯定、否定、疑问句。它还有进行和完成两种形式：should/ought to be doing（对现在正在进行的动作的推测）和should/ought to have done（表示与过去的事实相反，“本来应该”的意思）。
  eg. They should be here by now.
     The students should be doing the experiment in the lab.
     You should have come here ten minutes earlier.
3．should有时可以表示说话人惊讶的感觉，解为“竟然”。
  eg. I have never imagined that he should say so at the meeting.
四、need和dare
    need和dare两词，都既可作为情态动词，又可作为实意动词，所以复习的重点是分清在句子中它们分别是哪种动词。
1．need解为“需要、必须”。
 A) 作为情态动词时，多用于疑问句和否定句。
    eg. —Need I do it again?  —No, you needn’t.
   注意：与Must I do it again?的意思相近，但用need问，问的人一般希望得到的是否定的回答；而用must问，问话的人一般希望得到的是肯定回答。
 B) 作为实意动词，可用于各种句型，是及物动词，可以跟名词做宾语。
    eg. We need another five workers to do the work.
 C) needn’t have done与didn’t need to do的区别
    needn’t have done和didn’t need to do分别是情态动词用法与实意动词用法的过去形式，但是所表示的意义不同。needn’t have done意思是“本来不必”，言下之意是“做了不必要做的事了”；而didn’t need to do意思是“当时不必要”，言下之意是“当时不必要，因此可能就没有做”。
  试比较：She was too nervous to reply, but fortunately she didn’t need to say anything.
            她紧张得无法答复，但幸运的是，她那时什么也不必说。
          You needn’t have mentioned it to him, because he had been told everything before.
            你本来不必跟他提这件事的，之前已经有人把一切都讲给他听了。
2．dare解为“敢”。
 A) 作为情态动词时，多用于疑问句和否定句。
   eg. Dare you say that to your boss?
      The little boy dare not face his teacher.
   但是dare的固定词组“I dare say...”，用在肯定句中。
   eg. He’ll come again, I dare say.
   注意：dare作为情态动词时，它的过去式是dared。
   eg. They dared not laugh in front of their manager.
 B)作为实意动词，dare可以用在各种句型里。
   但是注意在否定句里，有时后面的不定式的to可以省略。
   eg. They didn’t dare (to) laugh in front of their manager.

代词
一、人称代词、物主代词和反身代词
1．人称代词的主格、宾格和所有格
  作主语时用主格，做宾语和表语时用宾格，作定语时用所有格。
  形容词性的所有格和名词性的所有格：如my和mine，your和yours等。
      eg. Your school is so different from ours (= our school).
2．英语中第一、第二、第三人称代词在句子中的排列次序：单数时为you, he and I；复数时为we, you and they。
3．it用于指人的情况：
  A) —Who is it/that speaking?  —It’s Mary speaking.
  B) —What’s wrong with the baby? —It’s crying loudly.
4．双重所有格的用法
  在英语中经常会碰到双重所有格的情况，如a friend of mine，the invention of his等，这种表达法的意思与my friend, his invention基本相同，只有细微的差别。
  另外，名词也有双重所有格的表达法，如a friend of my father’s, the invention of Professor Brown’s等。
5．在表示宾语的身体部位的名词前，一般用定冠词the代替所有格。
  试比较：The policeman caught the thief by the arm.
          The young lady carried a small baby in her arm.
6．We students与Our students的区别
  We students中文为“我们学生”，“学生”是“我们”的同位语，用这一词语的时候，说话人是学生。而Our students其实是“我们的学生”，说话人不是学生。当然，用We students的时候，We students必须是主语，如果是宾语，则用us students。
  eg. We students should learn more than book knowledge at school.
     Good teachers always bear us students in mind.
7．反身代词的用法
  A)作宾语
    eg. We must learn to adjust ourselves to the new situation.
    注意反身代词与代词宾格作宾语的区别：
     eg. Jane’s mother stared at her in the mirror. （Jane的母亲望着镜子中的Jane。）
        Jane’s mother stared at herself in the mirror. （Jane的母亲望着镜子中的自己。）
    试译：请好好保重。
           Please take good care of yourself.
          在幼儿园里，老师会很好地照顾你的。
           Teachers will take good care of you in the kindergarten.
  B)用作同位语，强调主语或宾语
  eg. I myself would never do such a thing. (= I would never do such a thing myself.)
     We talked with the mayor himself.
  C)反身代词的一些词组
    by oneself 单独，独自  eg. He finished the task by himself.
    for oneself 为了自己   eg. She cooked a meal for herself.
    between ourselves 就我们之间     eg. This is a secret between ourselves.
    teach oneself sth. 自学... eg. Lenin taught himself English when he was in Siberia.
    seat oneself = be seated  eg. He seated himself at the back of the room.
    devote oneself to = be devoted to   献身于
二、指示代词
1．this, these经常指下面要讲的东西，而that, those经常指前面讲过的东西。
  eg. He always begins his story like this: “Once upon a time, there was a ...”
     He was ill. That’s why he didn’t come.
2．that与those可以指代前面提到的名词，经常在比较级的句子中出现。
  eg. The boy told me his story and also that of his sister’s.
     Weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.
     The products produced this year are different from those produced last year.
3．this与that可用作副词，放在形容词或副词前，意思相当于so。
  eg. I didn’t expect the exam would be this easy.
     I can only go that far, to the riverside.
三、不定代词
1．one
  one只能指代可数名词的单数形式，它与it的不同之处是it代替前面所提到的名词，是特指的，也就是前面提到的同一件东西，而one代替前面所提到的名词，但它是一种泛指，即是这一类东西中的任何一个。试比较：
  I have lost my cell phone and I have to buy one (= a cell phone).
  I have bought a new cell phone. I bought it in Hong Kong.
2．any, some, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody, anything, something
 A)any一般用在否定句，疑问句与条件状语从句中。
   eg. —Have you any questions?  —No, I haven’t any.
      Please buy some apples if there are any.
   any也可以用在肯定句中，表示“任何一个”的意思。
    eg. This is common knowledge. Any pupil knows it.
 B)some一般用在肯定句中，但可以用在一种表示邀请的疑问句中。
    eg. Would you like to have some drinks? (= Have some drinks, please.)
       试比较：Have you bought any drinks?
   some有时还可以解释为“某个”的意思，相当于certain。
    eg. I have read it in some magazine. (= in a certain magazine.)
 C)anyone, someone, anybody, somebody都是指人，anything, something都是指物。无论是指人还是指物，都是单数性质。
3．another与the other等的用法见下表：
    单数    复数
泛指    another = another one    other ones = others
特指    the other = the other one    the other ones =the others
  eg. I don’t like the colour of the shirt. Will you please show me another (one/ shirt)?
     There were only two shirts left in the shop. I didn’t like the blue one. So I took the other.
     We have been told that only three of us have passed the exam, and the others have to do it again next week.
     There are many children in the park. Some are singing, others are dancing.
4．each与every
  each相当于形容词或名词，而every相当与形容词。
  each指两个或两个以上的“每一个”，every指三个或三个以上的“每一个”。
  用each的时候，常可强调“各不相同”，而用every时，常强调“全部都”。
  eg. Each of the hats cost 30 dollars. (= The hats cost 30 dollars each.)
There are shops on each side of the street.
     At the meeting, each student expressed his or her own idea.
     Every one of the students agreed with me.
5．everyone与every one
   everyone只指人，同everybody。
   every one既可指物，也可指人，指人时只用在of短语之前。
   eg. No one is absent today. Everyone is here.
      All the pictures are beautiful. I like every one of them.
6．all与both；any与either；none与neither
  这三对代词的区别是一样的，在与指代数量上的不同。all, any, none都是指代三个或三个以上，both, either, neither都是指代两者。
  eg. All the students like my idea.
     Both his parents are ordinary workers.
     There are many books in our library. You can borrow any of them.
     I have two dictionaries. You may take either one.
     None of my classmates will go there with me.
     Neither of his two brothers could help him during that time.
7．no one, nobody, nothing和none。
  no one = nobody，都是指人；nothing指物；none既可指人，也可指物。
  no one, nobody, nothing都是单数性质，none作主语，如指代不可数名词，看作单数，如果指代可数名词，既可看作单数，也可看作复数。
  在作否定回答时，用none回答有针对性的人或东西，用no one, nobody, nothing回答无针对性的人或东西。
  eg. —Who did you see in the office?  —No one/ Nobody.
     —Is there anything in the room?  —Nothing..
     —Is there any water in your bottle?  —None.
     —How many students have been chosen in your class this time?  —None.
8．not与all, both, every连用
not与all, both, every连用时都是部分否定，意思是“不全是”。
eg. All that glitters is not gold.
   Not every student can solve the problem.
   Both of his parents are not at home, today.
  试析：
    Don’t spit ____ (anywhere/ everywhere).


形容词和副词
一、形容词、副词的比较级与最高级
1．形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化
形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化分规则和不规则两种情况。
规则的变化，短的词（单音节及部分双音节的词）一般是在词尾加“er”或“est”（其中重读闭音节要双写最后的辅音字母；e结尾只要加“r”或“st”；“y”加辅音结尾的去“y”加“ier”或“iest”）如：big, bigger, biggest；late, later, latest；early, earlier, earliest等，较长的词（部分双音节及多音节的词）在前面加上more或most，如：careful, more careful, most careful；clearly, more clearly, most clearly等。
不规则变化的词为：good, well, bad, badly, ill, many, much, little, old, far。变化见下表：
原级    比较级    最高级
good, well    better    best
bad, badly, ill    worse    worst
many, much    more    most
little    less    least
old    older, elder    oldest, eldest
far    farther, furthest    farther, furthest

2．常用的比较级、最高级句型
 A) 用原级形容词、副词的句型：
  a) as... as...“和......一样......”
   eg. Try to make as few mistakes as you can.
      He speaks English as fluently as you.
  b) not as/so... as... “不如.......那样......”
   eg. People’s brains cannot work as fast as computers.
  c)在以上两个句型中，我们还可以加上“倍数”“分数”“百分数”等词。
   eg. Tibet is twice as large as Texas. (= Tibet is twice the size of Texas).
      My handwriting is not half so good as yours.
 B) 用比较级形容词、副词的句型：
  a) ...er than... / more ... than... “比......更......”
   eg. It’s cheaper to eat at home than