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HBV垂直传播形式及阻断策略

 临床肝胆病杂志 2019-12-13

世界卫生组织流行病学研究报告显示,全世界HBV携带者为3.6亿,其中1/3感染者在中国。母婴垂直传播感染占总感染病例数的45%左右[1]。近年来我国新生儿出生后广泛接种乙型肝炎疫苗或对高危产妇所生新生儿进行乙型肝炎免疫球蛋白(HBIG)冲击治疗,HBV母婴垂直传播率从建国初期的90%降至目前的10%左右。产前、产时和产后传播是造成HBV母婴垂直传播的3种主要方式。临床上找到提高HBV母婴垂直传播阻断率的合理方式对于消灭乙型肝炎至关重要。

1  HBV感染的母婴垂直传播途径

1.1  产前感染

宫内感染是指胎儿在母体内生长发育过程中被母体内HBV感染[2]。与新生儿外周血相比,脐带血更加远离母体血液环境,被母血感染的几率更低,因此更加适合于诊断胎儿是否在出生前已经发生宫内感染[3]。宫内感染或产前HBV传播是新生儿免疫阻断失败的重要原因,其机制如下。

1.1.1  胎盘感染    胎盘是运输母体营养物质到胎儿的重要组织,胎盘血液循环丰富。因此HBV也可以通过胎盘血液循环运送到婴儿血液,造成宫内HBV感染[4]。

1.1.2  胎盘漏血    HBV可以通过受损的胎盘组织从母体进入胎儿体内并使之感染。自发流产病史或先兆早产都可能导致胎盘损伤而增加HBV传播几率[5]。

1.1.3  羊水穿刺    羊水穿刺技术是诊断胎儿先天性疾病的金标准,是优生优育的必要手段。羊水穿刺过程中可以将母血接种于宫腔,增加HBV母婴传播风险[6]。

1.1.4  其他机制    母亲外周血单核细胞可能将HBV携带至胎儿体内而引起HBV感染[7]。

1.2  产时感染

产时感染是指新生儿在出生过程中造成的HBV感染,包括新生儿吞咽携带HBV病毒颗粒的母体血液、阴道分泌物。顺产孕妇长时间宫缩反应可能导致胎盘绒毛血管破裂,造成HBV感染的母血渗入胎儿体内而引发感染[8]。接生时使用产钳等器械造成的黏膜破损或皮肤擦伤能够增加婴儿HBV感染几率[9]。

1.3  产后感染

产后感染指婴儿出生后被母体传播HBV并造成感染,严格意义来讲属于一种水平传播方式。研究发现乳汁中能够检测到少量HBV,间接说明了母乳喂养可能造成HBV的母婴传播。但一项前瞻性研究[10]发现母乳喂养与人工喂养婴儿的HBV感染率无明显差异。

2  HBV感染的母婴垂直传播阻断策略

妊娠晚期使用抗病毒药物或HBIG降低母体HBV载量,可以明显减少宫内感染,是分娩前预防母婴垂直传播的主要手段[11]。分娩时预防是指新生儿出生后立即离开母体血液环境,并彻底清除婴儿体表的血液和黏液等污染源。严格处理婴儿脐带断口不被母血污染。乙型肝炎疫苗的接种和HBIG主被动联合免疫可以明显降低新生儿产后HBV的感染几率,是分娩后预防HBV母婴垂直传播的主要手段。在此基础上,如果能对高危孕产妇孕期的HBV进行严格管理,并进行科学的干预和抗病毒治疗,将更大水平地提高母婴阻断率,是目前逐渐被推广的阻断措施。

2.1  孕期抗病毒治疗

乙型肝炎母婴垂直传播最高危因素是产妇分娩时的HBV高病毒载量。产前合理抗病毒治疗可以快速降低产前HBV拷贝数,显著提高新生儿母婴传播阻断成功率[12-14]。拉米夫定、替比夫定和替诺福韦是目前可以用于孕期抗HBV的3种主要药物。替比夫定是目前中国孕妇进行孕期抗病毒治疗的主要用药,其具有用药安全性高、抗病毒效果强、价格低廉等多种优势。高病毒载量孕妇在孕晚期选用替比夫定进行抗病毒治疗可以使血清病毒载量平均降低3~4 log[15-16]。一项临床研究[17]结果显示,在婴儿接受主被动免疫基础上,应用替比夫定抗病毒治疗的产妇母婴传播率明显下降。替比夫定的用药安全性已经在临床试验和动物实验上得到充分证实[18-19]。妊娠期激素水平的变化会导致HBV携带孕妇孕期ALT水平下降,HBV DNA水平升高[20]。血清HBV DNA>2×106~107 IU/ml的孕妇可以加用拉米夫定或替比夫定[21]。替诺福韦在治疗慢性乙型肝炎患者8年的随访研究显示,HBeAg血清学转换率为31%,HBV DNA阴转率为98%,HBsAg阴转率为13%。该研究还显示,替诺福韦第1年到第8年发生的耐药率均为0。由此可见替诺福韦在抗HBV方面的可靠性是目前为止最高的,所以其他核苷类药物单药耐药或应答不佳的患者可以换用替诺福韦继续治疗。

2.2  孕期注射HBIG

HBIG含有高效价的抗-HBs,能够识别并中和HBsAg,清除血液中的游离HBV。孕期应用HBIG可以降低母体HBV拷贝数而降低HBV母婴传播几率[11,22-23]。但是孕期应用HBIG阻断HBV母婴传播效果存在一定争议。一项中国的临床研究[24]显示孕期应用HBIG对阻断母婴传播并没有效果,同时婴儿出生后检测抗-HBs为阴性。因此,HBIG能否通过胎盘屏障进入婴儿体内提供主动免疫还不得而知。同时,过早使用HBIG反而增加了选择压力,导致HBV抗原变异,使疫苗有效性下降,增加免疫逃逸[25]。

2.3  乙型肝炎疫苗联合高效价HBIG的主被动免疫

乙型肝炎疫苗的普遍注射对控制HBV新发感染和传播具有重要意义。我国自1992年将乙型肝炎疫苗纳入计划免疫项目以来,一般人群的HBsAg携带率从9.75%降至7.18%。其中4岁以下婴幼儿的下降率最明显,从9.7%降至0.96%[26-27]。我国《慢性乙型肝炎防治指南(2010年版)》[28]建议对HBsAg阳性母亲分娩的新生儿,应在出生后第1天、第1个月和第6个月时分别接种3次乙型肝炎疫苗,同时在出生当天尽早注射≥100 IU的HBIG。2013年《乙型肝炎病毒母婴传播预防临床指南(第1版)》[29]提出HBIG需要在出生后12 h内使用。上述预防措施对HBsAg阳性、HBeAg阴性孕妇所生新生儿保护率为98%~100%,对HBsAg阳性、HBeAg阳性孕妇所生新生儿保护率为85%~95%[30-33]。

3  HBV母婴垂直传播阻断失败原因及应对措施

HBsAg阳性孕妇所生的新生儿,HBeAg可通过胎盘从母体传递给婴儿,一般会在1~2年时间内消失。因此单一存在抗-HBe或抗-HBc阳性只表示母体的抗体通过胎盘,而不是代表HBV感染状态,因此更加丰富的HBV血清学标志物和更长时间的随访监测对于判断母婴阻断及免疫接种效果的评价显得尤为重要[34]。乙型肝炎母婴免疫阻断失败情况几乎集中于HBsAg和HBeAg双阳性母亲所生婴儿[35]。因此,孕产妇的病毒载量高低、新生儿出生后的阻断时机和疫苗用量、婴儿本身的免疫系统功能都将成为HBV母婴垂直传播阻断成功与否的关键因素。

3.1  孕产妇抗病毒药物的耐药性问题

耐药是所有药物必须要面对的问题,抗HBV药物也不例外。临床数据显示,非孕期慢性HBV感染女性患者连续应用拉米夫定治疗1年后的耐药率可达23.99%,而4年后高达69.99%。耐药机制可能与HBV聚合酶基因YMDD的突变有关[36]。替比夫定的耐药风险明显低于拉米夫定,1年内的耐药率为4.99%,1年以上持续用药的耐药率仅为10.00%[37]。研究数据证实,对拉米夫定耐药的患者口服替比夫定或替诺福韦,能够有效实现HBV感染的母婴阻断。

3.2  婴儿出生后接种疫苗或HBIG的时间和剂量

提高乙型肝炎疫苗剂量可以进一步提高HBeAg阳性母亲所生婴儿的HBV阻断率。Cadranel等[38]临床研究显示,30例HBsAg阳性母亲所生的新生儿接受20 μg乙型肝炎疫苗免疫后,无1例婴儿感染HBV。Halliday等[39]研究显示使用10 μg乙型肝炎疫苗免疫新生儿的HBV阻断率为93.9%,而应用20 μg的母婴垂直传播阻断率提高到96.0%。关于HBIG和乙型肝炎疫苗的首针注射时间,疾病预防控制中心和免疫实践咨询委员会推荐,HBsAg阳性者所生新生儿乙型肝炎疫苗首针应该在出生后12 h内注射[40]。若母亲为HBsAg和HBeAg双阳性,HBIG注射的时间越早对其阻断效果越好[41-42]。2013年《乙型肝炎病毒母婴传播预防临床指南(第1版)》[29]提出HBIG需要在出生后12 h内(理论上越早越好)使用。但各个研究中首针注射时间并不统一,一般在出生后3~24 h[43-46]。所以,更大剂量的使用乙型肝炎疫苗或HBIG,并争取在新生儿出生后更早进行免疫,将会显著提高HBV母婴垂直传播的阻断率。

3.3  HBsAg蛋白变异

HBsAg决定簇被称为“a决定簇”,“a决定簇”区的变异可引起HBsAg免疫特征改变,导致抗体和疫苗逃逸[47-48]。因此,应用精准医学手段检测母体HBsAg“a决定簇”是否变异而采取相应的处理措施,将会提高HBV母婴垂直传播的阻断率。

3.4  新生儿免疫系统不成熟因素

新生儿对于一些细菌或病毒的易感性高于成人被归咎于免疫系统的不成熟性[49-50]。长期以来的理论认为,HBV从母体传染给婴儿是在孕期劫持了新生儿的免疫系统,使之处于免疫耐受状态并造成感染后的慢性化。HBV母婴垂直传播动物模型会造成下一代免疫系统中T淋巴细胞和B淋巴细胞的功能缺陷,印证了上述理论[51-53]。但是,近年来“训练免疫”理论对前述理论提出了挑战。研究[54-55]中观察到HBV阳性的母体所生新生儿更不易发生感染,会有更强的辅助性T淋巴细胞1反应功能。Hong等[56]在动物实验中发现HBV阳性母体所生新生小鼠的单核细胞能够分泌更多的IL-12和IFNα2,而分泌IL-10的水平明显低下。新生儿免疫系统的状态对HBV感染母婴垂直传播的阻断率有一定影响,但是具体因果关系还需进一步的实验或临床观察来证明。 

4  结论

妊娠期间HBV的管理较为复杂,任何治疗策略必须兼顾母亲和未出生婴儿的益处和安全性。对于计划怀孕的育龄妇女,选择抗病毒治疗方案时需要考虑对胎儿的潜在影响。HBV感染孕妇,特别是HBsAg/HBeAg阳性且病毒载量高的孕妇,必须通过抗病毒治疗控制其病毒血症,以降低HBV母婴传播的风险,维持孕妇健康。此外,新生儿出生后的阻断时机和疫苗用量、婴儿本身的免疫系统功能都将成为HBV母婴垂直传播阻断成功与否的关键因素。综上所述,除了必要的主动、被动免疫预防之外,建议在怀孕期间和产后6个月经常监测HBV,以便及时开始抗病毒治疗。

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