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犍陀罗是印度河两岸的土地。地域上包括今天巴基斯坦东北部和阿富汗东部，地处兴都库什山脉，人口多居于喀布尔河、斯瓦特河、印度河等河流冲击形成的山谷地区。 Gandhara is the name of the land on either side of the Indus river. Geographically, it includes today's northeastern Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan, located in the Hindu Kush Mountains. Most of the population lives in the valleys impacted by rivers such as the Kabul River, Swat River, and Indus River. 以白沙瓦河谷为中心，首都位于普什卡拉瓦提（现代查尔萨达），包括恰奇平原和波特瓦尔中心，首都位于塔克西拉（旧塔克夏希拉）。它的国王普什卡拉瓦提的王权统治了这两个城市，公元前6世纪，雅利安人留下了在塔克西拉的遗产，当时国王普什卡拉瓦提统治这座城市。这个时期的废墟已经被发现。他们的红色和灰色陶器以及青铜和铁工具是最具代表性的。这个国王被阿契美尼德统治者居鲁士和大流士一世推翻，他们吞并了犍陀罗和巴基斯坦其他地区进入他们的伊朗帝国。正是他们给了我们第一种形式的银弯条货币。他们引进了亚兰文书写，从中产生了这一地区的佉卢文书写。他们的文化馈赠导致了塔克西拉大学的发展，这所大学持续了将近一千年，也许是世界上最早的大学之一。 Peshawar valley with its capital at Pushkalavati (modern Charsadda) and Chhach plain inclusive of Potwar hub region with its capital at Taxila (old Taksha sila). Its king Pukkusati (correctly Pushkala sakti might of the city of Pushkalavati) ruled over both these cities in the 6th century BC after the Aryans left their legacy here at Taxila over the Hathial, the ruins of this period have been found. Their red and gray pots together with bronze and iron tools are most representative. This king was overthrown by the Achaemenian rulers Cyrus and Dairus-I, who annexed Gandhara and other parts of Pakistan into their Iranian empire. It is they who give us the first currency in the form of silver bent bar coins. They introduced Aramaic writing, from which originated the Kharoshthi writing of this region. Their cultural gift led to the development of Taxila University which lasted for nearly one thousand years perhaps one of the earliest universities of the world. 本文（过于简略地）讨论了以下问题—— 「犍陀罗」是如何形成的？谁是主要文明贡献者？ 「犍陀罗文明」分哪些阶段？各有哪些重要遗址？分布在哪？ 「犍陀罗」如何退出历史舞台？ This piece of writing aims to answer (if not, oversimply) a few important questions, namely: How did Gandhara come into formation? Who are the main contributors? How many phases of civilization did Gandhara go through? What are some representative heritages/relics? Where are they located? How did the civilization decline? ***文末有中英对照术语表和相关遗产列表*** 东西文明十字路口的犍陀罗 Gandhara at the crossroads of the East and the West 「犍陀罗」是如何形成的？谁是主要文明贡献者？ 犍陀罗文明位于现今的巴基斯坦和阿富汗地区，是古代中亚和南亚的重要文化艺术中心。其形成可以归因于各种文化、宗教和地缘政治因素的交汇。 The Gandhara civilization, located in what is now modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, emerged as a significant cultural and artistic center in ancient South Asia. Its formation can be attributed to a confluence of various cultural, religious, and geopolitical factors. 1. 地缘政治影响 Geopolitical Influences 犍陀罗地区地理位置战略重要，位于主要贸易路线的交汇处，包括丝绸之路，促进了东西方文化交流。这一地理位置促进了各种思想、人员和影响的涌入。The region of Gandhara was strategically situated at the crossroads of major trade routes, including the Silk Road, which facilitated cultural exchanges between East and West. This geographical location contributed to the influx of diverse ideas, people, and influences into the region. 2. 雅利安人迁徙 Aryan Migration 公元前1500年左右，印度雅利安人民族的迁徙带来了语言、文化和宗教影响，塑造了犍陀罗文明的早期发展。雅利安人为该地区的吠陀文化和宗教实践的建立做出了贡献。The migration of Indo-Aryan peoples into the Indian subcontinent around 1500 BCE brought with it linguistic, cultural, and religious influences that shaped the early development of Gandhara civilization. The Indo-Aryans contributed to the establishment of Vedic culture and religious practices in the region. 3. 阿契美尼德帝国 Achaemenid Empire 公元前6世纪，阿契美尼德帝国的征服者大流士将犍陀罗置于波斯的统治之下。阿契美尼德帝国倡导了帝国内的文化交流与融合政策，这可能影响了犍陀罗的艺术和管理实践。The conquests of the Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE brought Gandhara under Persian control. The Achaemenids promoted a policy of cultural exchange and integration within their vast empire, which likely influenced the artistic and administrative practices in Gandhara. 4. 希腊化影响 Hellenistic Influences 公元前4世纪，亚历山大大帝的征服活动使犍陀罗受到希腊化文化的影响。亚历山大的征服促进了希腊艺术、建筑和思想在该地区的传播。希腊化影响时期的特征在犍陀罗艺术风格中表现尤为突出，常以希腊艺术技巧描绘佛教主题。Following the campaigns of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, Gandhara came under the influence of Hellenistic culture. Alexander's conquests facilitated the spread of Greek art, architecture, and ideas throughout the region. This period of Hellenistic influence is evident in the Gandharan art style, which often depicted Buddhist motifs with Greek artistic techniques. 5. 孔雀王朝 Mauryan Empire 公元前4世纪，由昌德拉·古普塔·摩利亚建立的孔雀王朝将其控制范围扩展到犍陀罗地区。昌德拉·古普塔·摩利亚大帝是一位杰出的孔雀王朝统治者，在佛教传播方面发挥了重要作用，使其成为犍陀罗地区主要的宗教和文化力量。The Mauryan Empire, established by Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE, extended its control over Gandhara. Emperor Ashoka, a prominent Mauryan ruler, played a significant role in the spread of Buddhism, which became a dominant religious and cultural force in Gandhara. 6. 佛教影响 Buddhist Influence 佛教在昌德拉·古普塔·摩利亚大帝统治时期和随后的几个世纪里成为犍陀罗的主要文化和宗教影响。犍陀罗成为佛教学习、艺术和朝圣的重要中心，吸引了来自亚洲各地的僧侣、学者和艺术家。Buddhism emerged as a major cultural and religious influence in Gandhara, particularly during the reign of Ashoka and subsequent centuries. Gandhara became an important center for Buddhist learning, art, and pilgrimage, attracting monks, scholars, and artisans from across Asia. 7. 贵霜帝国 Kushan Empire 公元1世纪兴起的贵霜帝国对犍陀罗文明的发展起到了关键作用。贵霜帝国倡导宗教宽容，并赞助佛教寺院和艺术，使犍陀罗佛教艺术和建筑蓬勃发展。The Kushan Empire, which rose to power in the 1st century CE, played a crucial role in the development of Gandharan civilization. The Kushans promoted religious tolerance and patronized Buddhist monasteries and art, leading to a flourishing of Gandharan Buddhist art and architecture. 总之，犍陀罗文明的形成受到地缘政治、文化和宗教影响的复杂相互作用的塑造，包括雅利安人的迁徙、波斯的征服、希腊化的互动、佛教的扩张以及历代帝国的赞助。这些因素共同促成了犍陀罗文明所特有的文化元素的独特综合。 In summary, the formation of Gandhara civilization was shaped by a complex interplay of geopolitical, cultural, and religious influences, including Aryan migrations, Persian conquests, Hellenistic interactions, Buddhist expansion, and the patronage of successive empires. These factors contributed to the unique synthesis of cultural elements that characterized Gandhara civilization. 犍陀罗文明阶段和文化遗产分布Phases of the Gandhara Civilization and Distribution of Heritages 「犍陀罗文明」分哪些阶段？各有哪些重要遗址？分布在哪？ 位于今天的巴基斯坦和阿富汗部分地区的犍陀罗文明从公元前1千纪到公元5世纪繁荣发展。它是一个重要的文化和贸易中心，受到希腊、波斯和印度等各种文明的影响。犍陀罗文明的主要阶段可以概述如下： The Gandhara civilization, situated in the region that spans parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, flourished from around the 1st millennium BCE to the 5th century CE. It was a significant cultural and trade hub, influenced by various civilizations including Greek, Persian, and Indian. The main phases of the Gandhara civilization can be outlined as follows: 1. 孔雀王朝前 Pre-Mauryan Phase（公元前6世纪 - 公元前4世纪）： 这个阶段早于孔雀王朝的扩张。在这段时间里，该地区由各种部落和家族居住。考古发掘揭示了早期定居点和文物，为这一时期的物质文化提供了见解。这个阶段的一个著名遗产是Bhir Mound，它证明了该地区早期的居住和文化活动。 根据马歇尔（1951）的说法，从Bhir Mound发现的陶器和陶器人形等文物为犍陀罗文明的前毛里雅时期提供了宝贵的见解。 This phase predates the Mauryan Empire's expansion into the region under Emperor Chandragupta Maurya. During this time, the region was inhabited by various tribes and clans. Archaeological excavations have revealed early settlements and artifacts, providing insights into the material culture of this period. One notable heritage from this phase is the Bhir Mound, which provides evidence of early habitation and cultural activities in the region. According to Marshall (1951), artifacts discovered from the Bhir Mound, such as pottery and terracotta figurines, offer valuable insights into the pre-Mauryan phase of the Gandhara civilization. 2. 孔雀王朝阶段 Mauryan Phase（公元前4世纪 - 公元前2世纪）： 随着孔雀王朝的扩张，犍陀罗受到了恰恰·安德拉玛及其继任者的影响。这一时期见证了重要的文化和艺术发展，表现在希腊和印度艺术风格的融合上。犍陀罗地区成为了佛教艺术和建筑的重要中心，建造了佛塔和寺院。 孔雀王朝阶段最具代表性的遗产是白沙瓦博物馆的犍陀罗佛像造像，这是犍陀罗佛教艺术的杰作。根据贝伦特（2004）的说法，像此类佛像造像展示了孔雀王朝时期希腊和印度艺术传统的融合。 With the expansion of the Mauryan Empire, Gandhara came under the influence of Chandragupta Maurya and his successors. This period witnessed significant cultural and artistic developments, as seen in the blending of Greek and Indian artistic styles. The Gandhara region became a prominent center for Buddhist art and architecture, with the construction of stupas and monasteries. The most representative heritage from the Mauryan phase is the iconic Peshawar Museum's 'Buddha from Gandhara,' a masterpiece of Gandharan Buddhist art. According to Behrendt (2004), Gandharan sculptures like the Buddha from Gandhara exemplify the syncretism of Greek and Indian artistic traditions during the Mauryan period. 3. 贵霜帝国阶段 Kushan Phase（公元1世纪 - 公元5世纪）： 贵霜帝国以其首都白沙瓦为中心，在这个阶段塑造了犍陀罗文明。贵霜王朝推动了佛教的发展，并赞助了佛教寺院和佛塔的建造，这些地方成为了学习和艺术生产的中心。犍陀罗艺术在贵霜时期达到了巅峰，雕塑展示了希腊和印度艺术元素的独特融合。 贵霜时期的一个著名遗产是塔克巴希佛教大学，这是一个联合国教科文组织世界遗产。根据联合国教科文组织的说法，塔克巴希代表了贵霜时期佛教寺院建筑和犍陀罗艺术的卓越例证。 The Kushan Empire, with its capital at Peshawar, played a crucial role in shaping the Gandhara civilization during this phase. The Kushans promoted Buddhism and patronized the construction of Buddhist monasteries and stupas, which became centers of learning and art production. Gandharan art reached its zenith during the Kushan period, with sculptures exhibiting a distinctive blend of Hellenistic and Indian artistic elements. A notable heritage from the Kushan phase is the Buddhist monastery complex at Takht-i-Bahi, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. According to UNESCO (n.d.), Takht-i-Bahi represents an exceptional example of Buddhist monastic architecture and Gandharan artistry during the Kushan period. 犍陀罗文明的每个阶段都为其丰富的文化遗产做出了贡献，其特点是多种文化影响的综合。从公元前6世纪到公元后2世纪，可以粗略划分为孔雀王朝前、孔雀王朝、贵霜帝国三个文明阶段。犍陀罗文化影响力透过各时期的遗址和文物，经久不衰。 Each phase of the Gandhara civilization contributed to its rich cultural heritage, characterized by a synthesis of diverse cultural influences. From the early settlements of the pre-Mauryan phase to the flourishing Buddhist art of the Mauryan and Kushan periods, Gandhara's legacy endures through its archaeological remains and artistic masterpieces. 文明衰败Decline of the Gandhara Civilization 「犍陀罗」如何退出历史舞台？ 犍陀罗文明的衰落，位于现今的巴基斯坦和阿富汗地区，是一个受到各种地缘政治、文化和宗教因素影响的多方面过程。尽管历史记录相对有限，学者们通过考古证据、文献来源和比较研究，拼凑出了其衰落的叙事。以下是犍陀罗文明衰落的五个主要原因： The decline of the Gandhara civilization, situated in what is now modern-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, was a multifaceted process influenced by various geopolitical, cultural, and religious factors. While historical records are somewhat limited, scholars have pieced together a narrative of its decline through archaeological evidence, textual sources, and comparative studies. Here are five major reasons for the decline of the Gandhara civilization: 1. 地缘政治不稳定性 Geopolitical Instability 地区易受地缘政治不稳定性的影响是导致犍陀罗文明衰落的一个重要因素。该地区经常受到外部势力的入侵和征服，破坏了社会、经济和文化结构。考古学家莫蒂默·惠勒爵士表示，“犍陀罗文明地区是各个对手争夺的不断战场，其历史是持续奋斗的历史” One significant factor contributing to the decline of the Gandhara civilization was the region's susceptibility to geopolitical instability. The area was often subjected to invasions and conquests by external powers, disrupting social, economic, and cultural structures. Archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler noted, 'the region of the Gandhara civilization was a constant battlefield for rival powers, and its history is one of continuous struggle for survival' 2. 入侵与征服 Invasion and Conquest 外国势力对犍陀罗地区的入侵和征服在其衰落中起到了关键作用。各种中亚和波斯帝国的入侵，如库什安人和萨珊王朝的侵略，带来了该地区政治格局和文化动态的重大变化。历史学家乔纳森·马克·凯诺耶指出，“库什安人的入侵标志着犍陀罗历史的转折点，导致了对外国风俗和信仰的同化” The invasion and conquest of the Gandhara region by foreign powers played a pivotal role in its decline. The incursions of various Central Asian and Persian empires, such as the Kushans and the Sassanians, brought about significant changes in the political landscape and cultural dynamics of the region. Historian Jonathan Mark Kenoyer stated, 'the invasion of the Kushans marked a turning point in Gandhara's history, leading to the assimilation of foreign customs and beliefs' 3. 文化同化 Cultural Assimilation 外国统治者和移民涌入犍陀罗地区导致了文化同化和土著传统逐渐消失。采用外国语言、宗教和艺术风格导致了犍陀罗身份的转变。艺术史学家迈克尔·迈斯特指出，“犍陀罗文明经历了一种文化融合的过程，将土著元素与外国征服者带来的元素融合在一起”。The influx of foreign rulers and settlers into the Gandhara region led to cultural assimilation and the gradual erosion of indigenous traditions. The adoption of foreign languages, religions, and artistic styles contributed to a transformation of Gandharan identity. Art historian Michael Meister noted, 'the Gandhara civilization underwent a process of cultural syncretism, blending indigenous elements with those imported by foreign conquerors' 4. 经济衰退 Economic Decline 经济因素也在犍陀罗文明的衰落中发挥了作用。贸易路线的中断、资源枯竭和农业实践的转变导致了经济的衰退和社会动荡。考古证据表明，此时期城市中心的衰落和农村空间分布的转变。Economic factors also played a role in the decline of the Gandhara civilization. The disruption of trade routes, resource depletion, and shifts in agricultural practices contributed to economic decline and social upheaval. Archaeological evidence suggests a decline in urban centers and a shift towards rural settlement patterns during this period. 5. 宗教转变 Religious Transformation 新宗教思想的传播，尤其是佛教，对犍陀罗社会产生了深远影响。尽管佛教最初在该地区蓬勃发展，但后来印度教的赞助和伊斯兰影响的崛起导致了重大的宗教变革。宗教学者约翰·马歇尔指出，“犍陀罗佛教的衰落可以归因于外部压力和佛教团体内部的分裂”。 The spread of new religious ideologies, particularly Buddhism, had a profound impact on Gandharan society. While Buddhism initially flourished in the region, the later patronage of Hinduism and the rise of Islamic influences led to significant religious transformations. Religious scholar John Marshall noted, 'the decline of Buddhism in Gandhara can be attributed to a combination of external pressures and internal schisms within the Buddhist community”. 综上所述，犍陀罗文明的衰落是一个受地缘政治不稳定性、入侵、文化同化、经济衰退和宗教转变等多种因素影响的复杂过程。这些因素以动态的方式相互作用，最终导致了曾经繁荣的文明的衰落。 In conclusion, the decline of the Gandhara civilization was a complex process influenced by geopolitical instability, invasion, cultural assimilation, economic decline, and religious transformation. These factors interacted in a dynamic manner, ultimately leading to the decline of a once-thriving civilization.
（附一）中英对照术语表Terminologies 1. Gandhara civilization - 犍陀罗文明 Qiánduōluó wénmíng A region in ancient Pakistan and Afghanistan known for its unique blend of Hellenistic and indigenous cultures. 2. Peshawar Valley - 白沙瓦河谷 Báishāwǎ hé gǔ A fertile valley in modern-day Pakistan, historically significant for its strategic location and cultural heritage. 3. Pushkalavati - 普什卡拉瓦提 Pǔshí kǎlāwǎ tí An ancient city in the Peshawar Valley, believed to have been founded by the Gandhara civilization. 4. Chhach Plain - 恰奇平原 Qià qí píngyuán A plain in northern Pakistan known for its archaeological sites dating back to ancient civilizations. 5. Potwar Hub - 波特瓦尔中心 Bōtèwǎ ěr zhōngxīn A central hub in the Potwar region of Pakistan, historically significant for its trade and cultural exchanges. 6. Taxila - 塔克西拉 Tǎkè xī lā An ancient city in present-day Pakistan, once a major center of Gandharan culture and learning. 7. Aryans - 雅利安人 Yǎlì'ān rén An ancient Indo-European ethnic group associated with the early Vedic civilization of India. 8. Achaemenian - 阿契美尼德 Āqì měinídé Pertaining to the Achaemenid Empire, an ancient Persian dynasty known for its expansive territorial reach. 9. Aramaic writing - 亚兰文（北闪米特语言分支） Yà lán wén (Běi shǎn mìtè yǔyán fēnzhī) An ancient Semitic script used for writing the Aramaic language, prevalent in the Near East. 10. Kharoshthi writing - 佉卢文 Qúlú wén An ancient script used in the Gandhara region for writing Gandhari and Sanskrit languages. 11. Taxila University - 塔克西拉大学 Tǎkè xī lā dàxué An ancient center of learning in Taxila, believed to be one of the earliest universities in the world. 12. Silk Road - 丝绸之路 Sīchóu zhī lù An ancient network of trade routes connecting East Asia with the Mediterranean region, facilitating cultural exchange and commerce. 13. Greco-Buddhist - 希腊式佛教 Xīlà shì fójiào Referring to the cultural synthesis of Greek and Buddhist traditions, particularly prominent in the Gandhara region. 14. Stupas - 窣堵坡 Sūdǔpō Buddhist commemorative monuments, typically containing relics or important Buddhist artifacts. 15. Syncretism - 折衷论 Zhézhōng lùn The amalgamation of different cultural or religious traditions into a new, harmonious whole. 16. Maurya Empire - 孔雀王朝 Kǒngquè wángcháo An ancient Indian empire known for its political unity under Emperor Ashoka and significant contributions to Buddhist art and culture. 17. Kushan Empire - 贵霜帝国 Guì shuāng dìguó An empire in Central Asia and northern India known for its patronage of Gandharan art and role in facilitating trade along the Silk Road. 18. Huns - 匈奴 Xiōngnú A nomadic confederation from Central Asia known for their military incursions into Europe and Asia during antiquity. 19. White Huns - 厭哒（即白匈奴） Yàndá A Central Asian nomadic tribe also known as the Hephthalites, who played a significant role in the decline of the Gupta Empire in India. 20. Hindu Shahis - 印度沙希王朝 Yìndù shā xī wángcháo A dynasty ruling parts of present-day Afghanistan and northwestern India, known for their patronage of Hindu culture and art. 21. Ghaznavids - 加兹尼王朝 Jiāzīní wángcháo A Persianate Muslim dynasty that ruled parts of present-day Iran, Afghanistan, and northern India during the medieval period. 22.Mughals - 莫卧儿帝国 Mòwò'ér dìguó An imperial dynasty that ruled the Indian subcontinent from the early 16th to the mid-19th century, known for their architectural achievements and cultural contributions. 23. Sir Mortimer Wheeler 莫蒂默·惠勒爵士 Mòdìmì Huìlè juéshì An influential archaeologist known for his work on the Indus Valley Civilization and other ancient cultures. 24. Persian empires 波斯帝国 Bōsī dìguó Empires that originated from Persia, such as the Achaemenid Empire and the Sassanian Empire. 25. Kushans 库什安人 Kùshí ān rén A nomadic people who established an empire in Central Asia and played a significant role in the history of Gandhara. 26. Sassanians 萨珊王朝 Sàshān wángcháo The last native Persian dynasty before the rise of Islam, known for their conflicts with the Byzantine Empire. 27. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer 乔纳森·马克·凯诺耶 Qiáonàsēn · Mǎkè · Kǎinuòyē An archaeologist specializing in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization and its urban centers. 28. Michael Meister 迈克尔·迈斯特 Màikè'ěr · Màisītè An art historian known for his research on Gandharan Buddhism and its artistic expressions. 29. Rural settlement patterns 村落空间分布 Cūnluò kōngjiān fēnbù Distribution of human settlements in rural areas, influenced by factors such as geography and agriculture. 30. John Marshall 约翰·马歇尔 Yuēhàn · Mǎxiē'ěr An archaeologist and historian known for his work on Indian archaeology, including excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Taxila. （附二）相关遗产列表 List of Heritages 参考 References |
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